Association of Structural Social Capital and Self-Reported Well-Being among Japanese Community-Dwelling Adults: A Longitudinal Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Population
2.2. Outcome Measurement
2.3. Social Capital Measurement
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Area | The Number of the Study Population | Mean Age of the Study Population (years) | The Number of People Who Participate in Local Community Activities (%) | The Number of People Who Have at Least Five Neighbors in Contact (%) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 95 | 65.2 | 38 | (40.0) | H | 69 | (72.6) | L |
2 | 97 | 67.2 | 36 | (37.1) | L | 69 | (71.1) | L |
3 | 41 | 63.7 | 15 | (36.6) | L | 26 | (63.4) | L |
4 | 69 | 68.6 | 54 | (78.3) | H | 62 | (89.9) | H |
5 | 24 | 69.5 | 14 | (58.3) | H | 18 | (75.0) | H |
6 | 18 | 71.1 | 7 | (38.9) | L | 12 | (66.7) | L |
7 | 19 | 65.3 | 12 | (63.2) | H | 13 | (68.4) | L |
8 | 77 | 65.5 | 31 | (40.3) | H | 56 | (72.7) | L |
9 | 56 | 71.7 | 22 | (39.3) | L | 35 | (62.5) | L |
10 | 65 | 66.6 | 23 | (35.4) | L | 48 | (73.8) | H |
11 | 39 | 67.4 | 17 | (43.6) | H | 28 | (71.8) | L |
12 | 96 | 67.1 | 38 | (39.6) | H | 74 | (77.1) | H |
13 | 126 | 67.6 | 54 | (42.9) | H | 105 | (83.3) | H |
14 | 104 | 65.9 | 62 | (59.6) | H | 82 | (78.8) | H |
15 | 26 | 69.2 | 11 | (42.3) | H | 22 | (84.6) | H |
16 | 84 | 68.1 | 33 | (39.3) | L | 57 | (67.9) | L |
17 | 38 | 63.2 | 13 | (34.2) | L | 24 | (63.2) | L |
18 | 14 | 66.8 | 2 | (14.3) | L | 10 | (71.4) | L |
19 | 72 | 62.0 | 26 | (36.1) | L | 45 | (62.5) | L |
20 | 12 | 62.0 | 5 | (41.7) | H | 9 | (75.0) | H |
21 | 33 | 70.3 | 22 | (66.7) | H | 29 | (87.9) | H |
22 | 89 | 70.0 | 24 | (27.0) | L | 66 | (74.2) | H |
23 | 106 | 68.0 | 62 | (58.5) | H | 92 | (86.8) | H |
24 | 50 | 70.0 | 19 | (38.0) | L | 40 | (80.0) | H |
25 | 33 | 65.2 | 21 | (63.6) | H | 26 | (78.8) | H |
26 | 27 | 66.0 | 16 | (59.3) | H | 19 | (70.4) | L |
27 | 40 | 67.7 | 28 | (70.0) | H | 35 | (87.5) | H |
28 | 77 | 66.6 | 22 | (28.6) | L | 58 | (75.3) | H |
29 | 95 | 65.9 | 35 | (36.8) | L | 77 | (81.1) | H |
30 | 68 | 68.2 | 23 | (33.8) | L | 54 | (79.4) | H |
31 | 76 | 64.5 | 26 | (34.2) | L | 52 | (68.4) | L |
32 | 112 | 66.3 | 55 | (49.1) | H | 80 | (71.4) | L |
33 | 17 | 68.3 | 6 | (35.3) | L | 10 | (58.8) | L |
34 | 106 | 63.2 | 29 | (27.4) | L | 63 | (59.4) | L |
N/A * | 4 | 69.5 | ||||||
Total | 2105 | 67.0 | 901 | (42.9) | 1565 | (74.5) |
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Characteristics | Well-Being-Related Indicator | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Happiness | Self-Rated Health | Depressive Symptoms | ||||||
n = 1032 | n = 938 | n = 471 | ||||||
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||||||
Social capital at the community level | ||||||||
Participation in local community activities | High | 544 | (52.7) | 486 | (51.8) | 237 | (50.3) | |
Low | 488 | (47.3) | 452 | (48.2) | 234 | (49.7) | ||
The number of neighbors in contact | High | 554 | (53.7) | 503 | (53.6) | 275 | (58.4) | |
Low | 478 | (46.3) | 435 | (46.4) | 196 | (41.6) | ||
Social capital at the individual level | ||||||||
Participation in local community activities | Participate | 543 | (54.3) | 506 | (55.5) | 260 | (57.4) | |
Do not participate | 457 | (45.7) | 405 | (44.5) | 193 | (42.6) | ||
The number of neighbors in contact | Large (≥5) | 881 | (86.6) | 790 | (85.5) | 415 | (89.1) | |
Small (<5) | 136 | (13.4) | 134 | (14.5) | 51 | (10.9) | ||
Covariates | ||||||||
Age (years) | 40–49 | 116 | (11.4) | 107 | (11.5) | 0 | (0.0) | |
50–59 | 184 | (18.0) | 159 | (17.1) | 0 | (0.0) | ||
60–69 | 322 | (31.5) | 299 | (32.2) | 153 | (32.5) | ||
70–79 | 289 | (28.3) | 270 | (29.1) | 245 | (52.0) | ||
≥80 | 110 | (10.8) | 93 | (10.0) | 73 | (15.5) | ||
Sex | Female | 585 | (56.9) | 518 | (55.5) | 260 | (55.2) | |
Male | 444 | (43.1) | 416 | (44.5) | 211 | (44.8) | ||
Marital status | Married | 861 | (84.6) | 761 | (82.1) | 383 | (81.8) | |
Not married | 157 | (15.4) | 166 | (17.9) | 85 | (18.2) | ||
Cohabitants | Yes | 951 | (92.8) | 854 | (91.8) | 423 | (89.8) | |
No | 74 | (7.2) | 76 | (8.2) | 48 | (10.2) | ||
Educational attainment (years) | ≥10 | 790 | (77.1) | 719 | (77.2) | 313 | (66.7) | |
<10 | 234 | (22.9) | 212 | (22.8) | 156 | (33.3) | ||
History of major diseases * | No | 861 | (83.4) | 795 | (84.8) | 378 | (80.3) | |
Yes | 171 | (16.6) | 143 | (15.2) | 93 | (19.7) | ||
Current drinking | No | 496 | (48.9) | 451 | (48.9) | 267 | (57.8) | |
Yes | 519 | (51.1) | 472 | (51.1) | 195 | (42.2) | ||
Current smoking | No | 886 | (89.0) | 805 | (89.0) | 423 | (92.6) | |
Yes | 109 | (11.0) | 100 | (11.0) | 34 | (7.4) |
Outcome/Study Population (%) | Model 1 * | Model 2 † | Model 3 ‡ | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | ||||||||
Social capital associated with a decline in happiness | |||||||||||||
Total analyzed population | 109/1032 | (10.6%) | n = 1019 | n = 976 | n = 929 | ||||||||
at the community level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | High | 49/544 | (9.0%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 60/488 | (12.3%) | 1.23 | (0.95–1.59) | 0.117 | 1.18 | (0.90–1.55) | 0.220 | 1.21 | (0.90–1.63) | 0.209 | ||
The number of neighbors in contact | High | 43/554 | (7.8%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 66/478 | (13.8%) | 1.76 | (1.32–2.34) | <0.001 | 1.58 | (1.15–2.17) | 0.005 | 1.64 | (1.20–2.22) | 0.002 | ||
at the individual level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | Participate | 50/543 | (9.2%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Do not participate | 52/457 | (11.4%) | 1.02 | (0.72–1.46) | 0.901 | 0.95 | (0.67–1.36) | 0.799 | |||||
The number of neighbors in contact | Large (≥ 5) | 82/881 | (9.3%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Small (< 5) | 23/136 | (16.9%) | 1.61 | (1.10–2.37) | 0.015 | 1.51 | (1.05–2.17) | 0.027 | |||||
Social capital associated with a decline in self-rating health | |||||||||||||
Total analyzed population | 189/938 | (20.1%) | n = 925 | n = 888 | n = 847 | ||||||||
at the community level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | High | 92/486 | (18.9%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 97/452 | (21.5%) | 1.16 | (0.87–1.54) | 0.320 | 1.15 | (0.86–1.54) | 0.332 | 1.17 | (0.86–1.58) | 0.320 | ||
The number of neighbors in contact | High | 98/503 | (19.5%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 91/435 | (20.9%) | 1.08 | (0.81–1.44) | 0.593 | 1.02 | (0.74–1.40) | 0.896 | 1.00 | (0.72–1.39) | 0.982 | ||
at the individual level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | Participate | 106/506 | (20.9%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Do not participate | 75/405 | (18.5%) | 0.84 | (0.62–1.13) | 0.254 | 0.82 | (0.61–1.12) | 0.210 | |||||
The number of neighbors in contact | Large (≥ 5) | 152/790 | (19.2%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Small (< 5) | 33/134 | (24.6%) | 1.30 | (0.87–1.94) | 0.197 | 1.28 | (0.84–1.96) | 0.249 | |||||
Social capital associated with an increased risk of depressive symptoms | |||||||||||||
Total analyzed population | 79/471 | (16.8%) | n = 471 | n = 448 | n = 432 | ||||||||
at the community level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | High | 42/237 | (17.7%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 37/234 | (15.8%) | 0.91 | (0.59–1.40) | 0.661 | 0.82 | (0.55–1.23) | 0.345 | 0.79 | (0.51–1.22) | 0.292 | ||
The number of neighbors in contact | High | 47/275 | (17.1%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | |||||||
Low | 32/196 | (16.3%) | 0.97 | (0.65–1.44) | 0.875 | 0.86 | (0.58–1.27) | 0.440 | 0.77 | (0.51–1.15) | 0.199 | ||
at the individual level | |||||||||||||
Participation in local community activities | Participate | 36/260 | (13.8%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Do not participate | 38/193 | (19.7%) | 1.51 | (0.96–2.39) | 0.077 | 1.46 | (0.88–2.41) | 0.144 | |||||
The number of neighbors in contact | Large (≥5) | 68/415 | (16.4%) | 1.00 | 1.00 | ||||||||
Small (<5) | 10/51 | (19.6%) | 1.22 | (0.63–2.35) | 0.549 | 1.13 | (0.58–2.18) | 0.718 |
The Number of Neighbors in Contact at the Individual Level | Well-Being Related Indicator | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Happiness | Self-Rated Health | Depressive Symptoms | ||||||||||
n | Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | n | Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | n | Adjusted RR (95% CI) | p-Value | ||||
Have contact with a lot of neighbors (≥20) | 268 | 1.00 | 238 | 1.00 | 142 | 1.00 | ||||||
Have contact with quite a lot of neighbors (10–19) | 239 | 1.73 | (0.84–3.55) | 0.136 | 212 | 1.02 | (0.71–1.46) | 0.932 | 95 | 1.13 | (0.58–2.20) | 0.713 |
Have contact with some neighbors (5–9) | 301 | 1.80 | (0.81–4.04) | 0.151 | 279 | 1.00 | (0.69–1.44) | 0.993 | 150 | 1.37 | (0.80–2.35) | 0.246 |
Have contact with just a few neighbors (<5) | 118 | 2.33 | (1.11–4.85) | 0.025 | 116 | 1.27 | (0.73–2.20) | 0.402 | 44 | 1.37 | (0.74–2.55) | 0.313 |
Don’t know my neighbors | 3 | 5.10 | (1.02–25.6) | 0.048 | 2 | 3.69 | (1.06–12.8) | 0.040 | 1 | not applicable * |
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Nogi, K.; Imamura, H.; Asakura, K.; Nishiwaki, Y. Association of Structural Social Capital and Self-Reported Well-Being among Japanese Community-Dwelling Adults: A Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8284. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168284
Nogi K, Imamura H, Asakura K, Nishiwaki Y. Association of Structural Social Capital and Self-Reported Well-Being among Japanese Community-Dwelling Adults: A Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(16):8284. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168284
Chicago/Turabian StyleNogi, Kazuya, Haruhiko Imamura, Keiko Asakura, and Yuji Nishiwaki. 2021. "Association of Structural Social Capital and Self-Reported Well-Being among Japanese Community-Dwelling Adults: A Longitudinal Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16: 8284. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168284