Predictors of Mental Health Outcomes in Grocery Store Workers amid the COVID-19 Pandemic and Implications for Workplace Safety and Moral Injury
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Procedure
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. COVID-19 Fear
2.2.2. Workplace Threat Perception
2.2.3. Perceived Stress
2.2.4. Social Support
2.2.5. Generalized Anxiety Symptoms
2.2.6. Depressive Symptoms
2.2.7. Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms (PTSS)
2.2.8. Recommendations to Improve GSWs’ Ability to Work
2.2.9. Demographics
2.3. Analytic Plan
3. Results
3.1. Sample Characteristics
3.2. Preliminary Analyses
3.2.1. Correlations
3.2.2. Differences by Ethnicity, Gender Identity, and Age
3.3. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Models Predicting MH
3.3.1. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Predicting Anxiety
3.3.2. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Predicting Depression
3.3.3. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Predicting PTSS
3.4. Assessing Psychosocial Predictors of Mental Health Outcomes
3.4.1. Step 1: Disaster Fear and Threat
3.4.2. Step 2: Perceived Stress
3.4.3. Step 3: Social Support
3.5. Qualitative Themes of Recommendations
4. Discussion
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Future Considerations
4.3. Implications
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Thematic Themes | n | % | Direct Quotations from Participants |
---|---|---|---|
Enforcement and Implementation of Protection Policies for Worker Safety | 134 | 24 | “I would like stronger enforcement of mask wearing for customers or even more security for unreasonable customers and easier access to covid tests…” “I just need someone there [to enforce policy], or the proper policies in place to help us stay clean and safe in the workplace…” “Enforce capacity limits.” |
Institutional and Leadership Support | 106 | 19 | “Upper management needs to be more proactive and supportive and currently strongly lacks leadership skills with regards to COVID-19 preparation and implementing CDC guidelines in the grocery industry.” “I need the company to care more about people, their workers, and our health rather than making more and more money. It’s never enough.” “More union people checking-in to see the conditions at work.” |
Work Accommodations and Compensation | 95 | 17 | “…more compensation, I’m already struggling financially and walking this tightrope simply adds to the stress of the state of things.” “We need to be getting hazard pay for being at a high risk every day. We don’t get paid enough for all that we do. We are around hundreds of people a day…” “I wish I could take time off and be compensated. I worry I will bring COVID-19 home to my family and now my co-workers are all testing positive.” |
PPE and Hygiene Supplies | 88 | 16 | “More PPE. More sneeze guards in all open windows. More gloves, cleaning supplies, face shields, Lysol spray…” “Making sure the workers are protected and supplied with proper PPE (i.e., correct size gloves, masks that protect).” |
Mental Health and Emotional Support | 38 | 7 | “We need to know that our efforts are being appreciated and we are valued as essential workers.” “I need the support of family and coworkers as it gets harder and harder for me to show up to work. I feel overworked and unappreciated.” “Essential workers need free counseling or therapy due to these difficult times!” |
No Recommendations | 96 | 17 | “None, my workplace has done enough.” |
Total | 557 | 100 |
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Characteristic | n | % |
---|---|---|
Ethnicity | ||
Asian | 34 | 4 |
African American | 28 | 3.3 |
Native American | 6 | 0.7 |
Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander | 4 | 0.5 |
Latino | 280 | 33.3 |
White | 222 | 72.2 |
Other | 34 | 4 |
Declined to State | 234 | 27.8 |
GSW Position | ||
Baker | 24 | 2.9 |
Butcher | 16 | 1.9 |
Cashier | 202 | 24 |
Courtesy Clerk | 116 | 13.8 |
Department Manager | 81 | 9.6 |
Florist | 11 | 1.3 |
Janitorial | 1 | 0.1 |
Service Deli Worker | 58 | 6.9 |
Stocker | 75 | 8.9 |
Store Manager | 6 | 0.7 |
Other | 242 | 28.7 |
Declined to state | 10 | 1.2 |
Length of Time Worked in Years | ||
0–1 | 184 | 22 |
1–5 | 205 | 24.3 |
5–10 | 101 | 12.1 |
10–20 | 141 | 16.7 |
20+ | 206 | 24.5 |
Average Number of Hours Worked Per Week | ||
0–10 | 9 | 1.1 |
10–20 | 69 | 8.2 |
20–40 | 522 | 62 |
40–60 | 209 | 24.8 |
60+ hours | 3 | 0.4 |
Variables | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Age | 1 | |||||||||
2. GE | −0.12 ** | 1 | ||||||||
3. FEAR | −0.06 | −0.18 *** | 1 | |||||||
4. WPT | −0.15 *** | 0.03 | 0.39 *** | 1 | ||||||
5. PS | −0.25 *** | −0.09 * | 0.38 *** | 0.39 *** | 1 | |||||
6. FAM | −0.12 ** | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.11 ** | 0.16 ** | 1 | ||||
7. FRND | −0.03 | 0.01 | 0.15 *** | 0.10 * | 0.11 ** | 0.59 *** | 1 | |||
8. ANX | −0.19 *** | −0.10 * | 0.44 *** | 0.35 *** | 0.66 ** | 0.12 ** | 0.09 * | 1 | ||
9. DEP | −0.21 *** | −0.07 | 0.38 *** | 0.35 *** | 0.66 ** | 0.21 *** | 0.17 *** | 0.70 *** | 1 | |
10. PTSS | −0.17 *** | −0.12 ** | 0.53 *** | 0.41 *** | 0.53 ** | 0.10 ** | 0.10 * | 0.60 *** | 0.64 *** | 1 |
M | 41.56 | - | 16.23 | 16.85 | 18.38 | 8.02 | 8.18 | 2.36 | 8.19 | 9.70 |
SD | 13.91 | - | 5.38 | 6.71 | 7.18 | 4.41 | 4.06 | 1.93 | 6.60 | 6.00 |
Variables | Females (n = 379) M (SD) | Males (n = 221) M (SD) | t-Value | Df | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
COVID-19 Fear | 17.11 (5.33) | 14.82 (5.10) | 5.22 | 474.35 | <0.001 |
WPT | 16.82 (6.67) | 16.96 (6.77) | −0.24 | 595 | 0.814 |
Perceived Stress | 19.21 (6.89) | 17.18 (7.37) | 3.34 | 435.60 | <0.001 |
Lack of SS from Family | 7.93 (4.43) | 8.00 (4.16) | −0.19 | 596 | 0.851 |
Lack of SS from Friends | 8.14 (4.03) | 8.21 (3.92) | −0.22 | 594 | 0.414 |
Anxiety | 2.56 (1.94) | 2.00 (1.78) | 3.60 | 492.32 | <0.001 |
Depression | 8.75 (6.51) | 7.14 (6.33) | 3.00 | 468.51 | 0.002 |
PTSS | 10.46 (5.97) | 8.59 (5.65) | 3.83 | 478.63 | <0.001 |
Variables | Age Group | ANOVA Results | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
18–29 M (SD) (n = 146) | 30–39 M (SD) (n = 109) | 40–49 M (SD) (n = 126) | 50–59 M (SD) (n = 159) | 60–69 M (SD) (n = 50) | df | F | η2 | |
FEAR | 16.14 (5.34) | 16.97 (5.90) | 17.21 (5.73) | 15.79 (4.87) | 14.86 (4.39) | 588 | 2.64 * | 0.04 |
WPT | 18.36 (6.78) | 17.58 (6.42) | 17.13 (6.67) | 15.87 (6.73) | 15.38 (6.55) | 586 | 3.62 ** | 0.05 |
PS | 21.41 (7.40) | 19.32 (6.61) | 18.08 (6.98) | 17.18 (6.46) | 15.92 (7.65) | 588 | 9.91 *** | 0.10 |
FAM | 9.07 (4.42) | 8.01 (4.43) | 7.39 (4.30) | 7.99 (4.51) | 6.86 (3.48) | 588 | 3.66 ** | 0.05 |
FRND | 8.08 (4.16) | 8.50 (4.23) | 8.37 (4.04) | 8.28 (3.96) | 7.24 (3.38) | 586 | 0.96 | 0.02 |
ANX | 2.86 (1.84) | 2.53 (1.91) | 2.56 (1.95) | 2.05 (1.85) | 1.71 (1.80) | 587 | 5.57 *** | 0.07 |
DEP | 10.71 (7.28) | 8.47 (6.54) | 8.33 (6.07) | 7.00 (6.10) | 6.78 (5.68) | 587 | 7.30 *** | 0.08 |
PTSS | 10.85 (6.01) | 10.74 (6.12) | 10.33 (6.29) | 8.73 (5.06) | 7.82 (60.8) | 586 | 4.83 *** | 0.06 |
Anxiety (n = 565) | Depression (n = 566) | PTSS (n = 558) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Predictor | ß | F(df) | R2 | ß | F(df) | R2 | ß | F(df) | R2 |
Covariates: | 16.15(2) *** | 0.051 | 16.09(2) *** | 0.051 | 13.58(2) *** | 0.043 | |||
Age | −0.19 *** | −0.21 *** | −0.16 *** | ||||||
GEN | 0.15 *** | 0.12 ** | 0.15 ** | ||||||
Step 1: | 54.20(4) *** | 0.274 | 47.00(4) *** | 0.245 | 80.46(4) *** | 0.360 | |||
Age | −0.14 *** | −0.16 *** | −0.11 ** | ||||||
GEN | 0.08 * | 0.07 | 0.06 | ||||||
FEAR | 0.36 *** | 0.28 *** | 0.44 *** | ||||||
WPT | 0.21 *** | 0.26 *** | 0.24 *** | ||||||
Step 2: | 106.51(5) *** | 0.483 | 89.85(5) *** | 0.440 | 82.10(5) *** | 0.418 | |||
Age | −0.04 | −0.06 | −0.06 | ||||||
GEN | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.03 | ||||||
FEAR | 0.23 *** | 0.15 *** | 0.37 *** | ||||||
WPT | 0.06 | 0.12 *** | 0.16 *** | ||||||
PS | 0.53 *** | 0.51 *** | 0.28 *** | ||||||
Step 3: | 76.05(8) *** | 0.482 | 66.17(7) *** | 0.446 | 58.80(7) *** | 0.417 | |||
Age | −0.04 | −0.05 | −0.05 | ||||||
GEN | −0.03 | 0.02 | 0.03 | ||||||
FEAR | 0.24 *** | 0.16 *** | 0.38 *** | ||||||
WPT | 0.06 | 0.11 ** | 0.15 *** | ||||||
PS | 0.53 *** | 0.50 *** | 0.28 *** | ||||||
FAM | 0.02 | 0.07 | 0.05 | ||||||
FRND | −0.04 | 0.03 | −0.03 |
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Janson, M.; Sharkey, J.D.; del Cid, D.A. Predictors of Mental Health Outcomes in Grocery Store Workers amid the COVID-19 Pandemic and Implications for Workplace Safety and Moral Injury. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 8675. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168675
Janson M, Sharkey JD, del Cid DA. Predictors of Mental Health Outcomes in Grocery Store Workers amid the COVID-19 Pandemic and Implications for Workplace Safety and Moral Injury. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(16):8675. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168675
Chicago/Turabian StyleJanson, Melissa, Jill D. Sharkey, and Daniel A. del Cid. 2021. "Predictors of Mental Health Outcomes in Grocery Store Workers amid the COVID-19 Pandemic and Implications for Workplace Safety and Moral Injury" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16: 8675. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168675