Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Material and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Design
2.2.1. Intervention
2.2.2. Test Design
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Development within Groups over Measurement Time Points
3.2. Comparison between Groups across Measurement Time Points
4. Discussion
- (1)
- Traditional motor learning theories point out errors and seek to correct them (motor learning), implying that there is a specific way to perform a movement, technique, or skill [1,11]. These error corrections aim to improve or perfect performance within a feedback loop [71]. However, from the results of the study, it appears that these corrections limit the potential of learners by making them stick to certain movement patterns that are considered the best movements in the techniques to be learned. This in a way controls the actual potential of the learner and leads to role model learning that does not allow the learner’s originality and innovation to shine.
- (2)
- Learning theories also attempt to repeat the movement being learned multiple times in order to perfect the movement. Considering judgment errors only as fluctuations has the potential to destabilize the system to allow true self-organization [16,17,72]. An intermediate step between teacher-oriented and self-organized learning is already offered by reform pedagogical approaches according to Basedow, Pestalozzi, or Dewey, where discovery-based learning is allowed within given limits. Either way, coaches and trainers may have to reconsider what errors are and to rethink the idea of role modeling (ideal movement), because learners are not given the freedom and opportunity to learn and develop naturally as individuals. Again, the physical education teacher’s task to teach gross-motor movements in sports to beginners may involve revising their approach towards their lessons, as well as the methods they employ.
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Standing Position | |
1 | Stand with one leg forward, change leg position while performing. |
2 | Stand on one leg, change leg while executing. |
3 | Both legs parallel. |
4 | Both knees bent, but parallel. |
5 | Bend knees while performing. |
6 | Both knees bent, but one leg in front, change leg position while executing. |
7 | Legs slightly apart. |
8 | Spread legs slightly while performing. |
9 | Extend one leg forward. |
10 | Leg raised, knee bent to chest height, switch with other leg. |
11 | As in Task 10, but change angle of legs. |
12 | Stand on the balls of the feet. |
13 | Stand on the heels of the feet. |
Trunk Movement | |
14 | Forward movement during the execution. |
15 | Sideways movement during execution. |
16 | Backward movement during execution. |
17 | Rounding in during execution. |
18 | Straighten during the execution. |
Head Movement | |
19 | Look up. |
20 | Look down. |
21 | Head circling. |
22 | One eye closed. |
23 | Both eyes blinking. |
Hand/Arm Movement | |
24 | Arms higher. |
25 | Arms (more) forward. |
26 | Arms sideways. |
27 | Elbow position slightly back to the side. |
28 | Elbow position slightly forward and inward. |
29 | Elbows bent. |
30 | Elbows extended. |
31 | Arms crossed. |
32 | Hands on top of each other. |
33 | Hands parallel |
34 | Hands supinated. |
35 | Hands pronated. |
36 | Hands as fists. |
37 | Hands wide open. |
Mass Movement (Velocity Change) | |
38 | One step forward during the execution. |
39 | Two steps forward during the execution. |
40 | One step backward during execution. |
41 | Two steps backward during the execution. |
42 | Side steps to the left and right during execution. |
43 | Moving one leg forward, backward, left, right during the execution. |
44 | During execution one quick step forward. |
45 | During execution one quick step backward. |
46 | During the execution two quick steps to the front. |
47 | During execution two quick steps backward. |
48 | During the execution quick lateral steps to the left and right. |
49 | Quick one-legged movement forward, backward, left, right during execution. |
Jumps/Hops | |
50 | During the execution single-leg hops to the front, back, left, right. |
51 | While performing two-legged hop forward, backward, left, right. |
52 | Jump with execution of the technique before landing. |
53 | Jump with execution of the technique exactly at the landing. |
Running | |
54 | Fast runs to the execution position. |
55 | Fast and slow runs during the performance. |
Twist and Turns | |
56 | Half turn left/right on command immediately before execution. |
57 | Execution with hip position 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 300° to the stroke direction. |
Position Changes | |
58 | Execution in seated position with legs crossed, legs forward, hurdle seat position, legs wide apart, one leg bent. |
59 | Execution in a seated position with legs crossed, legs forward, hurdle seat position, legs wide apart, one leg bent. |
60 | Execution lying bent, stretched, on the side. |
61 | 60, but faster. |
62 | 60, but slower. |
63 | Execution backwards. |
Combine at Least two of all Above | |
64 | Jump and turn left while performing. |
65 | 27 and 46 while execution |
66 | 21 and 32 while execution |
67 | Different type of balls. |
68 | Different terrains (e.g., on sand, grass, soft floor mat, …) |
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Comparison | Friedman-Test or Kruskal-Wallis-Test (Rank Scores) | Post Hoc Dunn-Bonferroni-Tests |
---|---|---|
Overhand Pass | ||
RG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 3.720, p = 0.156 (Pre: 1.61; Post: 2.25; Ret: 2.14) | – |
DG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 25.529, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.04; Post: 1.96; Ret: 3.00) | Pre vs. Ret: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.544 +++ Post vs. Ret: p = 0.024 *, r = 0.288 + |
CG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 11.306, p = 0.004 ** (Pre: 1.57; Post: 2.68; Ret: 1.75) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.010 *, r = 0.296 + Post vs. Ret: p = 0.042 *, r = 0.248 + |
Pre: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 1.709, p = 0.426 (RG: 24.14; DG: 22.11; CG: 18.25) | – |
Post: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 7.758, p = 0.021 * (RG: 18.04; DG: 28.89; CG: 17.57) | CG vs. DG: p = 0.042 *, r = 0.465 ++ |
Ret: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 15.508, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 18.36; DG: 31.42; CG: 13.96) | RG vs. DG: p = 0.013 *, r = 0.550 +++ DG vs. CG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.732 +++ |
Underhand Pass | ||
RG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 21.714, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.07; Post: 2.29; Ret: 2.64) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.004 **, r = 0.324 ++ Pre vs. Ret: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.420 ++ |
DG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 23.306, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.00; Post: 2.19; Ret: 2.81) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.007 **, r = 0.319 ++ Pre vs. Ret: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.483 ++ |
CG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 14.000, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.82; Post: 2.64; Ret: 1.54) | Post vs. Ret: p = 0.010 *, r = 0.296 + |
Pre: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 0.392, p = 0.822 (RG: 22.79; DG: 20.86; CG: 20.86) | |
Post: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 31.014, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 20.36; DG: 34.50; CG: 9.64) | RG vs. DG: p = 0.005 **, r = 0.597 +++ RG vs. CG: p = 0.05 *, r = 0.452 ++ DG vs. CG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 1.049 +++ |
Ret: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 36.687, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 21.43; DG: 35.00; CG: 7.57) | RG vs. DG: p < 0.008 **, r = 0.577 +++ RG vs. CG: p < 0.005 **, r = 0.589 +++ CG vs. DG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 1.165 +++ |
Overhand Service | ||
RG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 8.000, p = 0.018 * (Pre: 1.86; Post: 2.43; Ret: 1.71) | – |
DG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 21.347, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.00; Post: 2.35; Ret: 2.65) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.002 **, r = 0.360 ++ Pre vs. Ret: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.442 ++ |
CG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 9.172, p = 0.010 * (Pre: 1.96; Post: 1.61; Ret: 2.43) | – |
Pre: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 14.235, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 16.39; DG: 17.86; CG: 30.25) | RG vs. CG: p = 0.002 **, r = 0.649 +++ DG vs. CG: p = 0.006 **, r = 0.580 +++ |
Post: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 29.276, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 14.39; DG: 35.43; CG: 14.68) | RG vs. DG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.892 +++ DG vs. CG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.879 +++ |
Ret: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 35.229, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 8.21; DG: 34.85; CG: 20.93) | RG vs. DG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 1.142 +++ RG vs. CG: p = 0.012 *, r = 0.546 +++ DG vs. CG: p = 0.006 **, r = 0.597 +++ |
Combined multiple techniques | ||
RG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 18.582, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.07; Post: 2.54; Ret: 2.39) | Pre vs. Post: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.391 ++ Pre vs. Ret: p = 0.001 **, r = 0.353 ++ |
DG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 24.571, p < 0.001 *** (Pre: 1.00; Post: 2.14; Ret: 2.86) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.007 **, r = 0.305 ++ Pre vs. Ret: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.496 ++ |
CG: Pre—Post—Ret | χ2(2) = 11.259, p = 0.004 * (Pre: 1.57; Post: 2.71; Ret: 1.71) | Pre vs. Post: p = 0.007 **, r = 0.305 ++ Post vs. Ret: p = 0.024 *, r = 0.267 + |
Pre: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 0.288, p = 0.866 (RG: 16.39; DG: 17.86; CG: 30.25) | – |
Post: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 28.127, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 14.39; DG: 35.43; CG: 14.68) | RG vs. DG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.775 +++ DG vs. CG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 0.938 +++ |
Ret: RG—DG—CG | χ2(2) = 30.205, p < 0.001 *** (RG: 8.21; DG: 34.85; CG: 20.93) | RG vs. DG: p = 0.001 ***, r = 0.700 +++ DG vs. CG: p < 0.001 ***, r = 1.015 +++ |
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Apidogo, J.B.; Burdack, J.; Schöllhorn, W.I. Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball? Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 10499. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910499
Apidogo JB, Burdack J, Schöllhorn WI. Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021; 18(19):10499. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910499
Chicago/Turabian StyleApidogo, Julius B., Johannes Burdack, and Wolfgang I. Schöllhorn. 2021. "Repetition without Repetition or Differential Learning of Multiple Techniques in Volleyball?" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 19: 10499. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910499