Perception of School Violence: Indicators of Normalization in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Students
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Mapuche School Context
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Participants
3.2. Instrument
4. Procedure
Plan for Analysis
5. Results
6. Discussion and Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Maturana, H. Transformación en la Convivencia; Paidós: Barcelona, Spain, 1999; ISBN 978-956-9987-55-7. [Google Scholar]
- Weber, M. El Político y el Científico; el libro de bolsillo; Alianza Editorial: Madrid, Spain, 1998; ISBN 978-84-206-6939-7. [Google Scholar]
- Weber, M. Historia Económica General, 3rd ed.; Fondo de Cultura Económica: Ciudad de México, Mexico, 2012; ISBN 978-607-16-0585-6. [Google Scholar]
- Muñoz, F.; Becerra, S.; Riquelme, E. Elaboración y Validación Psicométrica Del Cuestionario de Convivencia Escolar Para La No Violencia (CENVI). Estud. Pedagógicos Valdivia 2017, 43, 205–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Muñoz, F. Violencia y Gestión de La Convivencia En Una Escuela de Temuco-Chile: Resultados Del Cuestionario CENVI. In Investigaciones Teóricas y Experiencias Prácticas Para la Equidad en Educación; Dykinson, S.L., Vega, C., Vico, A., Eds.; Plaza de Edición: Madrid, Spain, 2022; pp. 1049–1073. ISBN 978-84-13-77921-8. [Google Scholar]
- Galaviz-Armenta, T. Enfoques Disciplinarios e Interdisciplinarios Para El Análisis y Definición de La Violencia. Ánfora 2021, 28, 161–182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muñoz, F.; Muñoz, G. Violencia En Escuelas Insertas En Contextos de Comunidades Mapuche En La Región de La Araucanía, Chile. In Muros de Discriminación & Exclusión en la Construcción de Identidades: La Mirada de las Ciencias Sociales; Dykinson, S.L., Cotán, A., Ruíz, J., Eds.; Plaza de Edición: Madrid, Spain, 2021; pp. 1913–1931. ISBN 978-84-13-77564-7. [Google Scholar]
- Durán, E. La Pedagogía Para La Paz Como Estrategia Para La Transformación de Imaginarios Sociales de Violencia En Niños y Niñas de La Región Del Catatumbo. Espiral Rev. Docencia E Investig. 2020, 10, 103–121. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Galtung, J. La Violencia: Cultural, Estructural y Directa. In Cuadernos de Estrategia 183. Política y Violencia: Comprensión Teórica y Desarrollo en la Acción Colectiva; Ministerio de Defensa: Madrid, Spain, 2016; pp. 147–168. [Google Scholar]
- Han, B.C. Topología de la Violencia; Pensamiento Herder; Herder: Barcelona, Spain, 2013; ISBN 978-84-254-3417-4. [Google Scholar]
- WHO. La Prevención de La Violencia: Evaluación de Los Resultados de Programas de Educación Para Padres; World Health Organization: Ginebra, Switzerland, 2014. [Google Scholar]
- Mella, M.; Binfa, L.; Carrasco, A.; Cornejo, C.; Cavada, G.; Pantoja, L. Violencia Contra La Mujer Durante La Gestación y Postparto Infligida Por Su Pareja En Centros de Atención Primaria de La Zona Norte de Santiago, Chile. Rev. Médica Chile 2021, 149, 543–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Navas, M.; Cano, M.C. Profile of the Victimized Aggressor in Child-to-Parent Violence: Differences According to the Type of Victimization. Int. J. Clin. Health Psychol. 2022, 22, 100302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cuadrado, I.; Fernández, I. ¿Son El Sexo y El Nivel Educativo Valores Predictivos Para El Comportamiento de Maltrato de Las Víctimas-Agresivas? Bordón Rev. Pedagog. 2009, 61, 59–75. [Google Scholar]
- Cuadrado, I.; Fernández, I.; Martín-Mora, G. ¿Pueden Las Víctimas de Bullying Convertirse En Agresores Del Ciberespacio? Estudio En Población Adolescente. Eur. J. Investig. Health Psychol. Educ. 2019, 9, 71–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Guajardo, G.; Toledo, M.; Miranda, C.; Sáez, C. El Uso de Las Definiciones de Violencia Escolar Como Un Problema Teórico. Cinta Moebio 2019, 145–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Cedeño, W. La Violencia Escolar a Través de Un Recorrido Teórico Por Los Diversos Programas Para Su Prevención a Nivel Mundial y Latinoamericano. Rev. Univ. Y Soc. 2020, 12, 470–478. [Google Scholar]
- Cuadrado, I. Divergence in Aggressors’ and Victims’ Perceptions of Bullying: A Decisive Factor for Differential Psychosocial Intervention. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2011, 33, 1608–1615. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yang, X.; Wang, Z.; Chen, H.; Liu, D. Cyberbullying Perpetration among Chinese Adolescents: The Role of Interparental Conflict, Moral Disengagement, and Moral Identity. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 2018, 86, 256–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Menesini, E.; Salmivalli, C. Bullying in Schools: The State of Knowledge and Effective Interventions. Psychol. Health Med. 2017, 22, 240–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Álvarez-García, D.; Dobarro, A.; Núñez, J.C.; Rodríguez, C. La Violencia Escolar En Los Centros de Educación Secundaria de Asturias Desde La Perspectiva Del Alumnado. Educ. XX1 2014, 17, 11494. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Domínguez, V.; Deaño, M.; Tellado, F. Incidencia de Los Distintos Tipos de Violencia Escolar En Educación Primaria y Secundaria. Aula Abierta 2020, 49, 373–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Utley, J.W.; Sinclair, H.C.; Nelson, S.; Ellithorpe, C.; Stubbs-Richardson, M. Behavioral and Psychological Consequences of Social Identity-Based Aggressive Victimization in High School Youth. Self Identity 2022, 21, 61–85. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Meldrum, R.; Patchin, J.; Young, J.; Hinduja, S. Bullying Victimization, Negative Emotions, and Digital Self-Harm: Testing a Theoretical Model of Indirect Effects. Deviant Behav. 2022, 43, 303–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salmon, S.; Garcés-Dávila, I.; Taillieu, T.L.; Stewart-Tufescu, A.; Duncan, L.; Fortier, J.; Struck, S.; Georgiades, K.; MacMillan, H.L.; Kimber, M.; et al. Adolescent Health Outcomes: Associations with Child Maltreatment and Peer Victimization. BMC Public Health 2022, 22, 905. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Murillo, F.J. Mejora de La Eficacia Escolar En Iberoamérica. Rev. Iberoam. Educ. 2011, 55, 49–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ghanem, N. The Effect of Violence in Childhood on School Success Factors in US Children. Child Abuse Negl. 2021, 120, 105217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- López, V.; Ascorra, P.; Bilbao, M.; Carrasco, C. De La Violencia a La Convivencia Escolar: Una Década de Investigación. In Una Década de Investigación en Convivencia Escolar; Ascorra, P., López, V., Eds.; Ediciones Universidad de Valparaíso: Valparaíso, IN, USA, 2019; pp. 15–50. [Google Scholar]
- Kitzmann, K.M.; Gaylord, N.; Holt, A.; Kenny, E. Child Witnesses to Domestic Violence: A Meta-Analytic Review. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 2003, 71, 339–352. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhang, L.; Mersky, J.; Gruber, A.; Kim, J. Intergenerational Transmission of Parental Adverse Childhood Experiences and Children’s Outcomes: A Scoping Review. Trauma Violence Abuse 2022, 152483802211261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muñoz, G.; Quintriqueo, S. Escolarización Socio-Histórica En Contexto Mapuche: Implicancias Educativas, Sociales y Culturales En Perspectiva Intercultural. Educ. Soc. 2019, 40. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lagos, R. Historia de Las Misiones Del Colegio de Chillán; Herederos de Juan Gili: Barcelona, Spain, 1908. [Google Scholar]
- Serrano, S.; Ponce De León, M.; Renfigio, S. Historia de la Educación en Chile (1810–2010). Tomo I Aprender a Leer y Escribir (1810–1880); Taurus: Santiago de Chile, Chile, 2013; ISBN 978-956-9635-31-1. [Google Scholar]
- Bengoa, J. ¿Una Segunda Etapa de La Emergencia Indígena En América Latina? Cuad. Antropol. Soc. 2009, 7–22. [Google Scholar]
- Quilaqueo, D.; Quintriqueo, S.; Torres, H.; Muñoz, G. Saberes Educativos Mapuches: Aportes Epistémicos Para Un Enfoque de Educación Intercultural. Chungará 2014, 46, 271–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muñoz, G.; Quintriqueo, S.; Esomba, M. Participación Familiar y Comunitaria En La Educación Intercultural En Contexto Mapuche. Espacios 2019, 40. Available online: https://www.revistaespacios.com/a19v40n19/19401921.html (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Quintriqueo, S.; Muñoz, G. Demandes Éducationnelles Sociohistoriques et Éducation Interculturelle En Contexte Mapuche. In Les Mapuche à la Mode: Modes d’existence et de Résistance au Chili, en Argentine et au-delà; Salas, R., Le Bonniec, F., Eds.; L’Harmattan: Paris, France, 2015; pp. 95–121. [Google Scholar]
- Whitehead, K. British Teachers’ Transnational Work within and beyond the British Empire after the Second World War. Hist. Educ. 2017, 46, 324–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Porma, J. El Conflicto Por El Aeródromo En El Natre, En Temuco, 1956. La Construcción de Un Imaginario Colectivo Sobre El Mapuche a Través de El Diario Austral. Estud. Trasandinos 2012, 17, 59–70. [Google Scholar]
- Muñoz, G.; Contreras, M.; Rabanal, D.; Lara, J. Violencias Estructurales: Una Mirada al Contexto Nacional Chileno. In Entramados Educativos: Tejiendo Miradas Desde el Sur-Austral; Oliva, I., Ed.; Ediciones Kultrún: Valdivia, Chile, 2021; pp. 39–50. [Google Scholar]
- Fernández, M.; Hauri, S. Resultados de Aprendizaje En La Araucanía: La Brecha de Género En El Simce y El Androcentrismo En El Discurso de Docentes de Lenguaje y Matemática. Calid. En Educ. 2016, 54–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ministerio de Desarrollo Social y Familia CASEN 2020 En Pandemia. Encuesta de Caracterización Socioeconómica Nacional 2020. 2020. Available online: https://bit.ly/3Rg1WTH (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Saiz, J.L.; Merino, M.E.; Quilaqueo, D. Meta-Estereotipos Sobre Los Indígenas Mapuches de Chile. Interdisciplinaria 2009, 26, 23–48. Available online: http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1668-70272009000100002 (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Hecht, A. Escolarización de Hablantes de Toba/Qom: Cruces Entre Políticas, Estadísticas y Trayectorias Escolares. Papeles Trab. 2014, 27, 103–127. Available online: http://www.scielo.org.ar/pdf/paptra/n27/n27a05.pdf (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Torres, H. Análisis de La Educación Intercultural Desde Una Experiencia Etnográfica En Contexto Mapuche. In Educación E Interculturalidad: Aproximación Crítica y Decolonial en Contexto Indígena; Quintriqueo, S., Quilaqueo, D., Eds.; Universidad Católica de Temuco: Temuco, Chile, 2019; pp. 287–301. [Google Scholar]
- Webb, A.; Radcliffe, S. Mapuche Demands during Educational Reform, the Penguin Revolution and the Chilean Winter of Discontent. Stud. Ethn. Natl. 2013, 13, 319–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Luna, L. Educación Mapuche e Interculturalidad: Un Análisis Crítico Desde Una Etnografía Escolar. Chungará Arica 2015, 47, 659–667. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Muñoz, G. Familia y Comunidad En La Escuela Intercultural: Una Mirada a La Realidad Mapuche En La Araucanía (Chile). In Desafíos de la Co-Construcción de un Modelo de Intervención Educativa Intercultural en Contexto Indígena; Quintriqueo, S., Quilaqueo, D., Eds.; Universidad Católica de Temuco: Temuco, Chile, 2019; pp. 55–70. [Google Scholar]
- Muñoz, G. Educación Familiar e Intercultural En Contexto Mapuche: Hacia Una Articulación Educativa En Perspectiva Decolonial. Estud. Pedagógicos 2021, 47, 391–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walsh, C. Interculturalidad y (de) Colonialidad: Perspectivas Críticas y Políticas. Visao Glob. 2012, 15, 61–74. [Google Scholar]
- Bertely, M.; Sartorello, S.; Arcos, F. Vigilancia, Cuidado y Control Étnico-Político: Red de Educación Inductiva Intercultural. Desacatos 2015, 32–49. Available online: https://bit.ly/3wE83bY (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Riquelme, E.; Quilaqueo, D.; Quintriqueo, S.; Elisa, L. Predominancia de La Educación Emocional Occidental En Contexto Indigena: Necesidad de Una Educación Culturalmente Pertinente. Psicol. Esc. E Educ. 2016, 20, 523–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Riquelme, E.; Miranda-Zapata, E.; Halberstadt, A. Creencias de Los Adultos Sobre La Emoción de Los Niños: Una Propuesta de Exploración En Contextos de Diversidad Cultural. Estud. Pedagógicos 2019, 45, 61–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Halberstadt, A.; Oertwig, D.; Riquelme, E. Beliefs About Children’s Emotions in Chile. Front. Psychol. 2020, 11, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- McMillan, J.; Schumacher, S. Investigación Educativa: Una Introducción Conceptual, 5th ed.; Pearson Educación: Madrid, Spain, 2005; ISBN 978-84-205-4163-1. [Google Scholar]
- León, O.; Montero, I. Métodos de Investigación en Psicología y Educación: Las Tradiciones Cuantitativa y Cualitativa, 4th ed.; McGraw-Hill: Madrid, Spain, 2015; ISBN 978-84-486-2050-9. [Google Scholar]
- Tapia, C.P.; Becerra, S.; Moncada, J. Gestión Convivencia Escolar: Del Aseguramiento a La Necesidad de Fortalecer La Formación Socioemocional. Opción 2019, 34, 325–351. [Google Scholar]
- Robles, P.; Rojas, M. La Validación Por Juicio de Expertos: Dos Investigaciones Cualitativas En Lingüística Aplicada. Rev. Nebrija Lingüíst. Apl. 2018, 18, 124–139. Available online: http://bit.ly/3EyVqBY (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Cabrero, J.; Llorente, M. La Aplicación Del Juicio de Experto Como Técnica de Evaluación de Las Tecnologías de La Información y Comunicación (TIC). Eduweb Rev. Tecnol. Inf. Comun. En Educ. 2013, 7, 11–22. [Google Scholar]
- Cubo, S.; Martín, B.; Ramos, J.L. Métodos de Investigación y Análisis de Datos en Ciencias Sociales y de la Salud; Pirámide: Madrid, Spain, 2011; ISBN 978-84-368-2462-9. [Google Scholar]
- Finney, S.; DiStefano, C. Non-Normal and Categorical Data in Structural Equation Modeling. In Structural Equation Modeling: A Second Course; Hancock, G.E., Mueller, R.O., Eds.; Information Age Publishing: Charlotte, NC, USA, 2013; pp. 269–314. [Google Scholar]
- Jöreskog, K. A General Method for Analysis of Covariance Structures. Biometrika 1970, 57, 239–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jöreskog, K.; Sörbom, D. LISREL 8: Structural Equation Modeling with the SIMPLIS Command Language, 5th ed.; Scientific Software International: Chicago, IL, USA, 2002; ISBN 978-0-89498-033-6. [Google Scholar]
- Batista-Foguet, J.; Coenders, G.; Alonso, J. Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio. Su Utilidad En La Validación de Cuestionarios Relacionados Con La Salud. Med. Clínica 2004, 122, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brown, T. Confirmatory Factor Analysis for Applied Research, 2nd ed.; Methodology in the social sciences; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2014; ISBN 978-1-4625-1779-4. [Google Scholar]
- Bentler, P.M. EQS Structural Equations Program Manual; BMDP Statistical Software: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
- Bentler, P.M.; Bonett, D.G. Significance Tests and Goodness of Fit in the Analysis of Covariance Structures. Psychol. Bull. 1980, 88, 588–606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hu, L.; Bentler, P. Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives. Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J. 1999, 6, 1–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lévy, J.-P.; Varela, J. Modelización con Estructuras de Covarianzas en Ciencias Sociales: Temas Esenciales, Avanzados y Aportaciones Especiales; Netbiblo: Oleiros, Spain, 2006; ISBN 978-84-9745-136-9. [Google Scholar]
- Varela, J.; Abalo, J.J.; Rial, A.A.; Braña, T. Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio de Segundo Nivel. In Modelización con Estructuras de Covarianza en Ciencias Sociales: Temas Avanzados, Esenciales y Aportes Especiales; Lévy, J.P., Varela, J., Eds.; Netbiblo: Oleiros, Spain, 2006; pp. 239–254. [Google Scholar]
- Hair, J.; Anderson, R.; Tatham, R.; Black, W. Análisis Multivariante, 5th ed.; Prentice Hall: Madrid, Spain, 1999; ISBN 64-8322-035-0. [Google Scholar]
- Chen, F. Sensitivity of Goodness of Fit Indexes to Lack of Measurement Invariance. Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J. 2007, 14, 464–504. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McDonald, R. Test Theory: A Unified Treatment; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ, USA, 1999; ISBN 978-0-8058-3075-0. [Google Scholar]
- Ventura, J.; Caycho, T. El Coeficiente Omega: Un Método Alternativo Para La Estimación de La Confiabilidad. Rev. Latinoam. Cienc. Soc. Niñez Juv. 2017, 15, 625–627. [Google Scholar]
- Cheung, G.W.; Rensvold, R.B. Evaluating Goodness-of-Fit Indexes for Testing Measurement Invariance. Struct. Equ. Model. Multidiscip. J. 2002, 9, 233–255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- IBM Corp. SPSS Statistics; IBM Corp.: Armonk, NY, USA, 2020. [Google Scholar]
- Muthén, L.K.; Muthén, B.O. MPlus; Muthén & Muthén: Los Angeles, CA, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
- Microsoft Microsoft Excel; Microsoft: Redmond, WA, USA, 2022.
- Caycho, T. Importancia Del Análisis de Invarianza Factorial En Estudios Comparativos En Ciencias de La Salud. Educ. Médica Super. 2017, 31, 1–3. Available online: http://bit.ly/3EySqG5 (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Mansilla, J.; Llancavil, D.; Mieres, M.; Montanares, E. Instalación de La Escuela Monocultural En La Araucanía, 1883-1910: Dispositivos de Poder y Sociedad Mapuche. Educ. E Pesqui. 2016, 42, 213–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Nahuelpán, H.; Antimil, J.; Lehman, K. Mapuchezugun Ka Mapuche Kimün: Confronting Colonization in Chile (Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries). In Handbook of Indigenous Education; McKinley, E., Smith, L., Eds.; Springer: Singapore, 2019; pp. 63–83. ISBN 978-981-10-3898-3. [Google Scholar]
- Ortiz-Velosa, E.; Arias-Ortega, K.E. Being Mapuche in the University: Entry Conditions to the Initial Teacher Training, La Araucanía. Educare 2019, 23, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Romero-Zepeda, J.A.; Romero-Zepeda, H.; Romero-Márquez, R.S. Exposición a La Violencia En Adolescentes Indígenas. Rev. Ra Ximhai 2018, 14, 13–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quilaqueo, D.; Quintriqueo, S. Métodos Educativos Mapuches: Retos de La Doble Racionalidad Educativa. Aportes Para Un Enfoque Educativo Intercultural; Universidad Católica de Temuco: Temuco, Chile, 2017; ISBN 978-956-9489-23-5. [Google Scholar]
- Quintriqueo, S.; Torres, H. Distancia Entre El Conocimiento Mapuche y El Conocimiento Escolar En Contexto Mapuche. Rev. Electrónica Investig. Educ. 2012, 14, 16–33. Available online: http://bit.ly/3OsqEiM (accessed on 12 December 2022).
- Alonqueo, P.; Alarcón, A.-M.; Hidalgo, C.; Herrera, V. Learning with Respect: A Mapuche Cultural Value. J. Study Educ. Dev. 2022, 45, 599–618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mansilla, P.; Imilan, W. Colonialidad Del Poder, Desarrollo Urbano y Desposesión Mapuche: Urbanización de Tierras Mapuche En La Araucanía Chilena. Scr. Nova 2020, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peguero, A.; Jiang, X. Backlash for Breaking Racial and Ethnic Breaking Stereotypes: Adolescent School Victimization Across Contexts. J. Interpers. Violence 2016, 31, 1047–1073. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Peguero, A. Violence, Schools, and Dropping Out: Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Educational Consequence of Student Victimization. J. Interpers. Violence 2011, 26, 3753–3772. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- De la Cruz, I.; Heredia, B. Asistencia y Deserción Escolar de La Juventud Indígena En Secundaria. Rev. Electrónica Investig. Educ. 2019, 21, 1–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Álvarez-Gálvez, J. Measuring the Effect of Ethnic and Non-Ethnic Discrimination on Europeans’ Self-Rated Health. Int. J. Public Health 2016, 61, 367–374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Burrage, R.L.; Momper, S.L.; Gone, J.P. Beyond Trauma: Decolonizing Understandings of Loss and Healing in the Indian Residential School System of Canada. J. Soc. Issues 2022, 78, 27–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chilisa, B.; Mertens, D.M. Indigenous Made in Africa Evaluation Frameworks: Addressing Epistemic Violence and Contributing to Social Transformation. Am. J. Eval. 2021, 42, 241–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ascorra, P.; Morales, M. Finalidades de La Política Educativa En Convivencia Escolar En América Latina: Algunas Lecciones Que Sacar. In Una Década de Investigación en Convivencia Escolar; Ascorra, P., López, V., Eds.; Ediciones Universidad de Valparaíso: Valparaíso, IN, USA, 2019; pp. 51–81. [Google Scholar]
Frequency | Percentage | ||
---|---|---|---|
Sex | Male | 725 | 51.6 |
Female | 679 | 48.4 | |
Age Range | 11 years or younger | 713 | 50.8 |
12 years or older | 691 | 49.2 | |
Ancestry | Non-Mapuche | 865 | 61.6 |
Unknown | 407 | 29.0 | |
Mapuche | 132 | 9.4 | |
Grade | 5th grade | 375 | 26.7 |
6th grade | 338 | 24.1 | |
7th grade | 377 | 26.9 | |
8th grade | 314 | 22.4 | |
School Type | Municipal or local public | 430 | 30.6 |
Subsidized private | 561 | 40.0 | |
Private | 413 | 29.4 | |
Payment | Paid | 688 | 49.0 |
Free | 716 | 51.0 |
Non-Mapuche | Unknown | Mapuche | Total | Percentage | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Municipal or Local Public | 228 | 140 | 62 | 430 | 14.4% |
Subsidized Private | 298 | 203 | 60 | 561 | 10.7% |
Private | 339 | 64 | 10 | 413 | 2.4% |
Factors | Dimensions | Abbreviation | Items by Dimension | Item No. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factor 1 Types of violence | 1 | Verbal violence | VV | 10 | 1–10 |
2 | Physical violence | PV | 11 | 11–21 | |
3 | Violence through social exclusion | VS | 10 | 22–31 | |
4 | Violence through technology | VT | 9 | 32–40 | |
5 | Teacher violence towards students | TV | 9 | 41–49 | |
Factor 2 Coexistence management | 1 | Education | EV | 12 | 50–61 |
2 | Management for non-violence | MV | 10 | 62–71 | |
3 | Participation | PA | 8 | 72–79 |
Factors | Dimensions | Cronbach’s Alpha | Median % | Variance % |
---|---|---|---|---|
Factor 1 Types of violence | VV | 0.810 | 13.39 | 35.5% |
PV | 0.886 | 10.21 | 43.3% | |
VS | 0.902 | 10.93 | 46.5% | |
VT | 0.886 | 10.21 | 43.0% | |
TV | 0.911 | 5.76 | 39.2% | |
Factor 2 Coexistence management | EV | 0.853 | 7.49 | 50.6% |
MV | 0.896 | 18.14 | 54.1% | |
PA | 0.890 | 18.20 | 54.9% |
Dimensions | Abbreviation | |
---|---|---|
Verbal violence | VB | Aggressions through words such as insults, threats, offensive nicknames. |
Physical violence | PV | Pushing and shoving, hair pulling, pinching, punching and kicking or hitting with objects. Indirect physical violence occurs when it is perpetrated on the belongings or work materials of the victim. |
Social exclusion | SE | Acts of discrimination or rejection based on academic performance, nationality, cultural or ethnic differences, physical characteristics or personal appearance. |
Digital violence | DV | Aggressions through mobile phones or other communication devices via the internet, through photos, videos or text messages. |
Teacher violence | TV | Teacher aggressions towards the student, whether verbal, physical or discriminatory. |
Dimensions | Abbreviation | |
---|---|---|
Education | ED | Practices for reflection and education based on dialogue, respect and legitimate acceptance of the other, in order to reduce the risk of situations of violence. |
Assurance | AS | Construction and compliance with rules of coexistence for the prevention, control and punishment of violence. |
Participation | PA | Actions aimed at the integration of members of the educational community, to contribute to the construction of safe spaces that are free from abuse. |
Second-Order Factors | First-Order Factors (Dimensions) | Abbreviation | Items by Dimension | Item No. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Factor 1 Types of violence | 1 | Verbal violence | VV | 8 | 1–8 |
2 | Physical violence | PV | 11 | 9–19 | |
3 | Social exclusion | SE | 10 | 20–29 | |
4 | Digital violence | DV | 9 | 30–38 | |
5 | Teacher violence | TV | 8 | 39–46 | |
Factor 2 Coexistence management | 1 | Education | ED | 10 | 47–56 |
2 | Assurance | AS | 10 | 57–66 | |
3 | Participation | PA | 8 | 67–74 |
Factors | Dimensions | Range of Correlations Minimum; Maximum | Compound Reliability | AVE |
---|---|---|---|---|
Coexistence | Verbal violence | 0.578; 0.829 | 0.894 | 0.516 |
Physical violence | 0.615; 0.873 | 0.926 | 0.536 | |
Social exclusion | 0.595; 0.831 | 0.912 | 0.511 | |
Digital violence | 0.728; 0.848 | 0.943 | 0.650 | |
Teacher violence | 0.570; 0.838 | 0.895 | 0.521 | |
Violence | Education | 0.582; 0.804 | 0.912 | 0.510 |
Assurance | 0.643; 0.805 | 0.917 | 0.528 | |
Participation | 0.623; 0.782 | 0.892 | 0.510 |
Category | Group | N | X2 | DF | RMSEA | CFI | TLI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ancestry | Non-Mapuche | 865 | 5383.348 | 2599 | 0.035 | 0.913 | 0.909 |
Unknown | 407 | 3415.274 | 2599 | 0.028 | 0.944 | 0.942 | |
Mapuche | 132 | 2883.243 | 2599 | 0.029 | 0.942 | 0.940 | |
Sex | Male | 725 | 4817.809 | 2599 | 0.034 | 0.921 | 0.917 |
Female | 679 | 4415.148 | 2599 | 0.032 | 0.929 | 0.926 | |
School Type | Municipal or local public | 430 | 3655.251 | 2599 | 0.031 | 0.931 | 0.928 |
Subsidized private | 561 | 3774.791 | 2599 | 0.028 | 0.941 | 0.938 | |
Private | 413 | 3335.064 | 2599 | 0.026 | 0.927 | 0.924 | |
Payment | Free | 688 | 4231.881 | 2599 | 0.030 | 0.922 | 0.919 |
Paid | 716 | 4154.266 | 2599 | 0.029 | 0.946 | 0.943 | |
Grade | 5th grade | 375 | 3309.719 | 2599 | 0.027 | 0.940 | 0.937 |
6th grade | 338 | 3370.381 | 2599 | 0.030 | 0.932 | 0.929 | |
7th grade | 377 | 3705.927 | 2599 | 0.034 | 0.917 | 0.914 | |
8th grade | 314 | 3777.217 | 2599 | 0.038 | 0.913 | 0.910 | |
Age | 11 years or younger | 713 | 4196.680 | 2599 | 0.029 | 0.935 | 0.932 |
12 years or older | 691 | 4964.290 | 2599 | 0.036 | 0.916 | 0.912 |
X2 | DF | p | RMSEA | CFI | TLI | ΔX2 | ΔDF | ΔRMSEA | ΔCFI | ΔTLI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Configural | 9039.684 | 7797 | 0.000 | 0.018 | 0.942 | 0.940 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 9148.334 | 7929 | 0.000 | 0.018 | 0.943 | 0.942 | 108.650 | 132 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.002 |
Scalar | 9374.489 | 8209 | 0.000 | 0.017 | 0.946 | 0.946 | 226.155 | 280 | −0.001 | 0.003 | 0.004 |
X2 | DF | p | RMSEA | CFI | TLI | ΔX2 | ΔDF | ΔRMSEA | ΔCFI | ΔTLI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SEX | Configural | 9237.327 | 5198 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.924 | 0.921 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 9342.896 | 5264 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.923 | 0.921 | 105.569 | 66 | 0.000 | −0.001 | 0.000 | |
Scalar | 9445.358 | 5404 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.924 | 0.924 | 102.462 | 140 | 0.000 | 0.001 | 0.003 | |
SCH | Configural | 10,510.513 | 7797 | 0.000 | 0.027 | 0.937 | 0.935 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 10,866.019 | 7929 | 0.000 | 0.028 | 0.932 | 0.930 | 355.506 | 132 | 0.001 | −0.005 | −0.005 | |
Scalar | 11,474.656 | 8209 | 0.000 | 0.029 | 0.924 | 0.925 | 608.637 | 280 | 0.001 | −0.008 | −0.005 | |
PAY | Configural | 8358.142 | 5198 | 0.000 | 0.029 | 0.936 | 0.933 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 8591.323 | 5264 | 0.000 | 0.030 | 0.933 | 0.931 | 233.181 | 66 | 0.001 | −0.003 | −0.002 | |
Scalar | 8968.137 | 5404 | 0.000 | 0.031 | 0.928 | 0.928 | 376.814 | 140 | 0.001 | −0.005 | −0.003 | |
GRA | Configural | 14,078.571 | 10,396 | 0.000 | 0.032 | 0.926 | 0.923 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 14,368.633 | 10,594 | 0.000 | 0.032 | 0.924 | 0.923 | 290.062 | 198 | 0.000 | −0.002 | 0.000 | |
Scalar | 14,815.461 | 11,014 | 0.000 | 0.031 | 0.924 | 0.925 | 446.828 | 420 | −0.001 | 0.000 | 0.002 | |
AGE | Configural | 9086.815 | 5198 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.926 | 0.923 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
Metric | 9220.049 | 5264 | 0.000 | 0.033 | 0.925 | 0.923 | 133.234 | 66 | 0.000 | −0.001 | 0.000 | |
Scalar | 9391.125 | 5404 | 0.000 | 0.032 | 0.924 | 0.924 | 171.076 | 140 | −0.001 | −0.001 | 0.001 |
Dimensions | Test Statistic | Statistical Significance |
---|---|---|
Verbal violence | 20.099 | <0.001 * |
Physical violence | 11.992 | 0.002 * |
Social exclusion | 4.016 | 0.134 |
Digital violence | 0.102 | 0.950 |
Teacher violence | 14.017 | 0.001 * |
Education | 0.141 | 0.932 |
Assurance | 1.180 | 0.554 |
Participation | 1.182 | 0.554 |
Group 1 | Range Average | Group 2 | Range Average | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Verbal Violence | non-Mapuche | 487.95 | Mapuche | 571.38 | 0.002 * |
non-Mapuche | 609.85 | unknown | 693.14 | <0.001 * | |
Mapuche | 280.32 | unknown | 266.65 | 0.380 | |
Physical Violence | non-Mapuche | 490.29 | Mapuche | 556.06 | 0.014 ** |
non-Mapuche | 616.25 | unknown | 679.55 | 0.004 * | |
Mapuche | 280.32 | unknown | 266.65 | 0.380 | |
Teacher Violence | non-Mapuche | 501.54 | Mapuche | 482.34 | 0.437 |
non-Mapuche | 663.63 | unknown | 578.83 | <0.001 * | |
Mapuche | 287.20 | unknown | 264.42 | 0.143 |
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Muñoz-Troncoso, F.; Cuadrado-Gordillo, I.; Riquelme-Mella, E.; Miranda-Zapata, E.; Ortiz-Velosa, E. Perception of School Violence: Indicators of Normalization in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Students. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010024
Muñoz-Troncoso F, Cuadrado-Gordillo I, Riquelme-Mella E, Miranda-Zapata E, Ortiz-Velosa E. Perception of School Violence: Indicators of Normalization in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2023; 20(1):24. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010024
Chicago/Turabian StyleMuñoz-Troncoso, Flavio, Isabel Cuadrado-Gordillo, Enrique Riquelme-Mella, Edgardo Miranda-Zapata, and Eliana Ortiz-Velosa. 2023. "Perception of School Violence: Indicators of Normalization in Mapuche and Non-Mapuche Students" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 20, no. 1: 24. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20010024