Consumption of Bottled Water and Chronic Diseases: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Design, Data Source, and Participants
2.2. Variables
2.3. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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N | % of People Drinking BW | p | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sex | Males | 10,550 | 56.6 | 0.55 |
Females | 11,667 | 56.9 | ||
Age class (years) | 18–44 | 6972 | 58.4 | 0.00 |
45–59 | 6249 | 55.8 | ||
60–74 | 5587 | 56.5 | ||
≥75 | 3409 | 55.7 | ||
NA | 468 | / | ||
Education level | Graduate/post-graduate degree | 3295 | 51.4 | 0.00 |
High school diploma | 8598 | 56.5 | ||
Middle school diploma | 6111 | 59.3 | ||
Primary school diploma/none | 3905 | 59.2 | ||
NA | 308 | / | ||
Economical resources in last 12 months | Optimal | 296 | 49.7 | 0.00 |
Adequate | 14,976 | 56.1 | ||
Scarce | 6197 | 58.6 | ||
Inadequate | 749 | 57.9 | ||
BMI | Normal | 10,934 | 56.1 | 0.00 |
Underweight | 591 | 53.7 | ||
Overweight | 7811 | 57.1 | ||
Obese | 2881 | 59.3 | ||
Smoking status | Current | 4235 | 57.9 | 0.06 |
Former | 5605 | 56.1 | ||
Never | 12,377 | 56.7 | ||
Alcohol consumption | Current | 15,279 | 55.4 | 0.00 |
Former | 940 | 56.2 | ||
Never | 5809 | 60.5 | ||
NA | 189 | / | ||
Physical activity | No | 15,053 | 57 | 0.00 |
Once or more per week | 3564 | 55 | ||
Once or more per month | 1690 | 55.2 | ||
Less frequently | 1910 | 59.8 | ||
Hypertension | No | 16,053 | 56.7 | 0.26 |
Yes | 5551 | 57.3 | ||
NA | 613 | / | ||
Diabetes | No | 19,293 | 56.6 | 0.01 |
Yes | 1898 | 59.2 | ||
NA | 1026 | / | ||
Gastric/duodenal ulcers | No | 20,238 | 56.7 | 0.00 |
Yes | 662 | 61.6 | ||
NA | 1317 | / | ||
Kidney stones | No | 20,166 | 56.7 | 0.02 |
Yes | 700 | 60.7 | ||
NA | 1351 | / |
Outcome | OR | p-Value | C.I. |
---|---|---|---|
Hypertension | 1.05 | 0.05 | 1.00–1.11 |
Diabetes | 1.09 | 0.005 | 1.01–1.18 |
Kidney stones | 1.17 | 0.013 | 1.03–1.32 |
Gastric/duodenal ulcers | 1.21 | 0.003 | 1.07–1.38 |
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Dolcini, J.; Chiavarini, M.; Firmani, G.; Ponzio, E.; D’Errico, M.M.; Barbadoro, P. Consumption of Bottled Water and Chronic Diseases: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081074
Dolcini J, Chiavarini M, Firmani G, Ponzio E, D’Errico MM, Barbadoro P. Consumption of Bottled Water and Chronic Diseases: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2024; 21(8):1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081074
Chicago/Turabian StyleDolcini, Jacopo, Manuela Chiavarini, Giorgio Firmani, Elisa Ponzio, Marcello Mario D’Errico, and Pamela Barbadoro. 2024. "Consumption of Bottled Water and Chronic Diseases: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 21, no. 8: 1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21081074