Wireless Power Transfer Technologies Applied to Electric Vehicles: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Automatic operation without driver intervention. The process can be scheduled, and it can happen even without the presence of the vehicle owner. This feature reveals itself as convenient to promote the participation of the EVs in the V2G operations. Some software appliances can be designed and implemented to program the charges and set the user preferences.
- Safer charge. In case of electric cars, conductive charge is supported by cables carrying high electrical current. This could become a serious risk, especially when adverse weather conditions take place. As this conductor is avoided by wireless chargers, this type of charger becomes safer from the driver’s point of view. As a counterpart, magnetic or electric fields involved in the wireless power transfer must be restricted to the controlled levels to guarantee that they are not harmful.
- Dynamic or on-the-move charge. As the power source and the receiver are not physically connected, the EVs can be charged in more situations if they use wireless chargers. Thus, the use of wireless chargers extends the possibility of performing a static charge (when the EV is parked) to scenarios where the car is temporally stopped (e.g., waiting for a traffic light) or on the move. If this kind of charge are available in more road sectors, this will imply that the battery of the EVs can be charged more frequently while moving and it could be smaller and cheaper.
- Transferred power. WPT technology can be used to transmit up to 1 kW for light-duty vehicles, to transfer 1–100 kW for medium power EV or even to send more than 100 kW for high-power EVs. For very-low-power requirements, the system may directly power the vehicle instead of recharging the battery. In addition to this tendency, the power level impacts on two main issues. First, the devices on the power electronics need to support the switching frequency and the demanded power levels. Second, the power levels involved in the transfer usually sets the criterion to follow in the design. In this sense, the maximum power transfer theorem is applied for low-power applications whereas the efficiency is more relevant for high power levels.
- V2X-enabled power transfer, i.e., the compliance or not with the Vehicle-to-Everything (V2X) context. By this criterion, we define the sense of the power flow leading to unidirectional or bi-directional chargers. The traditional chargers have a power transfer with a unique sense from a power system to the battery but it is also possible to discharge the EVs to support the grid, another vehicle or device. In this last case, the power electronics must be designed to be bi-directional.
- Gap, i.e., the distance separating the power source and the receiver. In EV wireless chargers, we can find a wide range for the gap. In [17], the receiver is installed in the kickstand of a bicycle and the transmitter is on the pavement. Both power extremes are in contact with 0 cm as the gap. For electric cars, SAE establishes the term coil ground clearance as the gap. In particular, the organization defines three types of classes according to this parameter: Z1-class ( 100 mm < gap < 150 mm), Z2-class (140 mm < gap < 210 mm) and Z3-class (170 mm < gap < 250 mm). For aerospace applications, the gap can reach up to several meters [18].
- Capability to work with misalignment. During the design of a charger, the transmitter and the receiver are assumed to be in a predefined position. However, the conventional use of the charger may be in situations where the transmitter and/or the receiver are not in those expected placed. As a result, both extremes are misaligned. Some WPT technologies are still able to work with misalignment. However, other technologies need to reconfigure the transmitter to modify the power beam so it is adjusted to the current position of the receiver.
- Potential existence of intermediate objects. The WPT technologies operate with different ranges of wavelengths. This makes them capable or not to transmit the power when intermediate objects are in the gap. Safety issues may arise when this eventuality takes place.
- Stationary/Mobile receiver, if we set the requirement that the WPT system should be able to transfer power when the receiver is in an unspecific position before or during the charging process. This feature is especially relevant for on-the-move charge.
2. Charging Operation Modes: Static, Stationary and Dynamic
3. WPT Technologies
3.1. Magnetic Resonant WPT
Topology | Efficiency | ||
---|---|---|---|
SS | |||
SP | |||
PS | |||
PP |
3.2. Capacitive WPT
- Restricted electric field to the zone comprising the plates. This particularity eases the role of preserving the electromagnetic emissions in potentially dangerous areas.
- Reduced size and cost when compared with resonant wireless charger. Resonant chargers rely on expensive coils made of Litz wire in order to reduce the losses at high-frequencies. However, capacitive wireless chargers just require aluminum plates. This is cost-efficient material, with good conductivity and low weight.
- Difficulty to build the bulky capacitors due to the small area available underneath the vehicle chassis, specially for light-duty vehicles such as bicycles or scooters.
- Parasitic capacitances are common in the vehicle, which may affect in the performance of the wireless charger [61].
3.3. Microwave Power Transfer
- The transmitter and the receiver are designed to work in only one power flow direction. The adaptation of these chargers for V2G operations requires the replication of a dual system in the MPT.
- For high power levels, it requires bulky antennas which may avoid its applicability in some scenarios.
- The efficiency of MPT is lower than the one obtained by inductive or capacitive coupling [21]. This term is usually referred to as the beam collection efficiency.
3.4. Optical WPT
- Low efficiency. As previously explained, these systems suffer rom from a poor efficiency (<25%) [91]. The advances on laser technology and photovoltaic cells could increase this metric in the near future.
- Low power levels due to the potential risks of reaching a human being.
- Difficulty to orientate the laser beam via a software control, being the passive elements (e.g., lens or mirrors) the current devices to perform this task. It is worth noting that the orientation of the laser is usually a strong requirement as the beam must be oriented to the area where no human beings are in the path between the power source and the receiver.
- Unidirectional power flow. Due to the specific and different components that are present in the transmitter and in the receiver, V2G operations are not possible with this technology.
3.5. Comparison
3.6. Safety Issues
- Ultraviolet radiation, with a wavelength comprised between 200 and 400 nm.
- Visible light, with a wavelength in the interval from 100 to 400 nm.
- Infrared Radiation, in which the wavelength is greater than 400 nm but lower than 780 nm.
- Radiofrequency, in which the frequency is in the interval from 100 kHz to 300 GHz.
- Low frequency, for waves in the range from 1 Hz to 100 kHz.
- Static electric and magnetic fields with 0 Hz of frequency.
4. Additional Technologies for EVs Wireless Charge
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Charging Mode | Charging Type | Maximum Current | Maximum Power | Charging Time for 50 kWh | Kilometers from a 15 min Charge 1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mode 1 | Slow | 16 A, AC, Single-Phase | 3.7 kW | 14 h | 5 km |
Mode 2 | Fast | 32 A, AC, Single-Phase | 7.4 kW | 7 h | 9 km |
32 A, AC, Three-Phase | 22 kW | >2 h | 27 km | ||
Mode 3 | Rapid | 62 A, AC, Three-Phase | 43 kW | >1 h | 54 km |
Mode 4 | Ultra-Rapid | 400 A, DC | 200 kW | 15 min 2 | 250 km2 |
Technology | Power Level | Efficiency | Bi-Directional Flow | Gap | Intermediate Objects | On the Move | Cost |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Resonant | High (Up to 100 kW) | 90–95% | Yes | < 30 cm | Yes | Yes | Medium |
Capacitive | Medium (Up to 7 kW) | 80–85% | Yes | < 30 cm | Yes | Yes | Low |
Microwave | Low (<250 W) | 40–50% | No | up to 1 km | No | No | High |
Laser | Low (<500 W) | 1–15% | No | up to 1 km | No | No | High |
Public | E-Field Strength E (kV m) | Magnetic Field Strength H (A m) | Magnetic Flux Density B (T) |
---|---|---|---|
Occupational | 80 | ||
General | 21 |
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Triviño, A.; González-González, J.M.; Aguado, J.A. Wireless Power Transfer Technologies Applied to Electric Vehicles: A Review. Energies 2021, 14, 1547. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061547
Triviño A, González-González JM, Aguado JA. Wireless Power Transfer Technologies Applied to Electric Vehicles: A Review. Energies. 2021; 14(6):1547. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061547
Chicago/Turabian StyleTriviño, Alicia, José M. González-González, and José A. Aguado. 2021. "Wireless Power Transfer Technologies Applied to Electric Vehicles: A Review" Energies 14, no. 6: 1547. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061547