Author Contributions
Conceptualization, L.-G.H., Q.A.M. and A.Q.; methodology, M.F.S. and S.A.S.; software, M.F.S., Q.A.M. and S.A.S.; validation, L.-G.H., Q.A.M. and S.A.S.; formal analysis, S.H.H.S.; investigation, Q.A.M.; resources, R.A.R.; data curation, R.A.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.S.; writing—review and editing, Q.A.M. and S.A.S.; supervision, Q.A.M.; funding acquisition, L.-G.H., Q.A.M. and A.Q. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Figure 1.
Solar PV power potential map [
22].
Figure 1.
Solar PV power potential map [
22].
Figure 2.
Solar DNI map of Pakistan [
22].
Figure 2.
Solar DNI map of Pakistan [
22].
Figure 3.
Green university.
Figure 3.
Green university.
Figure 4.
Flowchart of this work.
Figure 4.
Flowchart of this work.
Figure 5.
Power, efficiency, and FF at a fixed 5-degree tilt angle, by month.
Figure 5.
Power, efficiency, and FF at a fixed 5-degree tilt angle, by month.
Figure 6.
Power, efficiency, and FF at variable optimal tilt angles, by month.
Figure 6.
Power, efficiency, and FF at variable optimal tilt angles, by month.
Figure 7.
Power, efficiency, and FF at an optimal fixed tilt angle (29.5°), by month.
Figure 7.
Power, efficiency, and FF at an optimal fixed tilt angle (29.5°), by month.
Figure 8.
Power, efficiency, and FF at a 15° fixed tilt angle, by month.
Figure 8.
Power, efficiency, and FF at a 15° fixed tilt angle, by month.
Figure 9.
(A) Influence of variable tilt angles on PV power output. (B) Influence of variable tilt angles on efficiency and fill factor.
Figure 9.
(A) Influence of variable tilt angles on PV power output. (B) Influence of variable tilt angles on efficiency and fill factor.
Figure 10.
Power, efficiency, and FF at an optimal fixed tilt angle (29.5°), by month.
Figure 10.
Power, efficiency, and FF at an optimal fixed tilt angle (29.5°), by month.
Table 1.
Specifications of the polycrystalline and monocrystalline PV modules.
Table 1.
Specifications of the polycrystalline and monocrystalline PV modules.
Polycrystalline PV Module |
Parameters | Variables | Values |
Rated power | Pm | 260 W |
Voltage at maximum power | Vmp | 31.4 V |
Current at maximum power | Imp | 8.37 A |
Open-circuit voltage | Voc | 38.4 V |
Short-circuit current | Isc | 8.94 A |
Monocrystalline PV Module |
Rated power | Pm | 280 W |
Voltage at maximum power | Vmp | 31.8 V |
Current at maximum power | Imp | 8.93 A |
Open-circuit voltage | Voc | 39.0 V |
Short-circuit current | Isc | 9.45 A |
Table 2.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 2.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Tilt Angle | Irradiance Level After Tilt | Declination Angle of the Earth | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.415 | 5 | 1024 | −20.14 | 9.15 | 38.35 | 31.37 | 8.56 |
February | 921.951 | 5 | 996.5 | −11.23 | 8.91 | 38.31 | 31.4 | 8.33 |
March | 1069.51 | 5 | 1117 | −0.403 | 9.98 | 38.55 | 31.3 | 9.33 |
April | 1148.78 | 5 | 1160 | 11.58 | 10.37 | 38.553 | 31.23 | 9.7 |
May | 1293.9 | 5 | 1277.9 | 20.14 | 11.42 | 38.72 | 31.13 | 10.66 |
June | 1367.07 | 5 | 1340 | 23.45 | 11.97 | 38.81 | 31.05 | 11.18 |
July | 1392.68 | 5 | 1375.7 | 20.44 | 12.29 | 38.85 | 31 | 11.48 |
August | 1250 | 5 | 1265 | 11.75 | 11.3 | 38.63 | 31.12 | 10.56 |
September | 1267.07 | 5 | 1321.6 | −0.2 | 11.81 | 38.73 | 31.06 | 11.03 |
October | 1076.83 | 5 | 1166.2 | −11.75 | 10.42 | 38.53 | 31.25 | 9.74 |
November | 1097.56 | 5 | 1232 | −20.44 | 11.01 | 38.6 | 31.16 | 10.29 |
December | 852.439 | 5 | 971 | −23.45 | 8.68 | 38.28 | 31.47 | 8.11 |
Table 3.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 3.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Optimal Tilt Angle | Irradiance Level After Tilt | Declination Angle of the Earth | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.41 | 57.73 | 1630 | −20.14 | 14.56 | 39.02 | 30.683 | 13.57 |
February | 921.95 | 47 | 1310 | −11.23 | 11.70 | 38.76 | 31.090 | 10.93 |
March | 1069.5 | 30.95 | 1229 | −0.403 | 10.98 | 38.60 | 31.176 | 10.26 |
April | 1148.7 | 10.16 | 1164 | 11.58 | 10.40 | 38.5 | 31.262 | 9.724 |
May | 1293.9 | 0 | 1294 | 20.14 | 11.56 | 38.68 | 31.090 | 10.81 |
June | 1367.0 | 0 | 1367 | 23.45 | 12.21 | 38.74 | 31.026 | 11.40 |
July | 1392.6 | 0 | 1392.7 | 20.44 | 12.44 | 38.81 | 31.002 | 11.61 |
August | 1250 | 9.834 | 1265.8 | 11.75 | 11.31 | 38.63 | 31.121 | 10.57 |
September | 1267.0 | 30.62 | 1452 | −0.2 | 12.97 | 38.92 | 30.889 | 12.11 |
October | 1076.8 | 47.74 | 1549 | −11.75 | 13.84 | 38.94 | 30.764 | 12.99 |
November | 1097.5 | 58.06 | 1977 | −20.44 | 17.65 | 39.39 | 30.174 | 16.42 |
December | 852.43 | 61.197 | 1677.6 | −23.45 | 14.9 | 39.04 | 30.602 | 13.97 |
Table 4.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 4.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Tilt Angle | Irradiance Level after Tilt | Declination Angle of the Earth | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.41 | 29.5 | 1447.27 | −20.14 | 12.93 | 38.93 | 30.9 | 12.07 |
February | 921.95 | 29.5 | 1253.4 | −11.23 | 11.2 | 38.66 | 31.15 | 10.46 |
March | 1069.5 | 29.5 | 1229 | −0.403 | 10.98 | 38.6 | 31.17 | 10.26 |
April | 1148.7 | 29.5 | 1108 | 11.58 | 9.9 | 38.46 | 31.28 | 9.27 |
May | 1293.9 | 29.5 | 1102.8 | 20.14 | 9.86 | 38.47 | 31.29 | 9.22 |
June | 1367.0 | 29.5 | 1109.5 | 23.45 | 9.92 | 38.45 | 31.27 | 9.28 |
July | 1392.6 | 29.5 | 1182 | 20.44 | 10.56 | 38.61 | 31.2 | 9.88 |
August | 1250 | 29.5 | 1202.5 | 11.75 | 10.75 | 38.55 | 31.2 | 10.04 |
September | 1267.0 | 29.5 | 1451.6 | −0.2 | 12.97 | 38.92 | 30.89 | 12.11 |
October | 1076.8 | 29.5 | 1476.6 | −11.75 | 13.19 | 38.85 | 30.86 | 12.31 |
November | 1097.5 | 29.5 | 1749.5 | −20.44 | 15.62 | 39.16 | 30.5 | 14.56 |
December | 852.43 | 29.5 | 1440.2 | −23.45 | 12.87 | 38.81 | 30.92 | 12.01 |
Table 5.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 5.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Tilt Angle | Irradiance Level After Tilt | Declination Angle of the Earth | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.415 | 15 | 1222 | −20.14 | 11.55 | 39.25 | 31.54 | 10.8903 |
February | 921.951 | 15 | 1125 | −11.23 | 10.63 | 39.14 | 31.65 | 10.0379 |
March | 1069.51 | 15 | 1186 | −0.403 | 11.21 | 39.22 | 31.56 | 10.5814 |
April | 1148.78 | 15 | 1161 | 11.58 | 10.97 | 39.16 | 31.59 | 10.3612 |
May | 1293.9 | 15 | 1227.6 | 20.14 | 11.6 | 39.23 | 31.52 | 10.9442 |
June | 1367.07 | 15 | 1265.5 | 23.45 | 11.96 | 39.26 | 31.46 | 11.282 |
July | 1392.68 | 15 | 1319 | 20.44 | 12.47 | 39.38 | 31.39 | 11.7522 |
August | 1250 | 15 | 1261.5 | 11.75 | 11.92 | 39.27 | 31.47 | 11.245 |
September | 1267.07 | 15 | 1403 | −0.2 | 13.26 | 39.42 | 31.28 | 12.4879 |
October | 1076.83 | 15 | 1320 | −11.75 | 12.47 | 39.37 | 31.39 | 11.7604 |
November | 1097.56 | 15 | 1474 | −20.44 | 13.93 | 39.52 | 31.16 | 13.1181 |
December | 852.439 | 15 | 1187.5 | −23.45 | 11.22 | 39.22 | 31.55 | 10.5975 |
Table 6.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 6.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Optimal Tilt Angle | Declination Angle of the Earth | Irradiance Level after Tilt | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.41 | 57.73 | −20.14 | 1630 | 15.4 | 39.7 | 30.94 | 14.477 |
February | 921.95 | 47 | −11.23 | 1310 | 12.38 | 39.26 | 31.42 | 11.666 |
March | 1069.5 | 30.95 | −0.403 | 1229 | 11.62 | 39.23 | 31.52 | 10.956 |
April | 1148.8 | 10.16 | 11.58 | 1164 | 11 | 39.15 | 31.58 | 10.39 |
May | 1293.9 | 0 | 20.14 | 1294 | 12.23 | 39.31 | 31.42 | 11.533 |
June | 1367.1 | 0 | 23.45 | 1367 | 12.92 | 39.38 | 31.34 | 12.168 |
July | 1392.7 | 0 | 20.44 | 1392.7 | 12.57 | 39.35 | 31.36 | 11.852 |
August | 1250 | 9.834 | 11.75 | 1265.8 | 11.96 | 39.26 | 31.46 | 11.283 |
September | 1267.1 | 30.62 | −0.2 | 1452 | 13.72 | 39.43 | 31.18 | 12.93 |
October | 1076.8 | 47.74 | −11.75 | 1549 | 14.64 | 39.61 | 31.04 | 13.779 |
November | 1097.6 | 58.06 | −20.44 | 1977 | 18.68 | 39.94 | 30.35 | 17.511 |
December | 852.44 | 61.197 | −23.45 | 1677.6 | 15.85 | 39.73 | 30.85 | 14.9 |
Table 7.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Table 7.
Monthly specific daily global irradiance (H), optimal tilt angle (deg), declination angle of the Earth, irradiance level after tilt, Isc, Voc, Imp, and Vmp.
Month | H-W | Tilt Angle | Irradiance Level after Tilt | Declination Angle of the Earth | Isc | Voc | Vmp | Imp |
---|
January | 913.41 | 29.5 | 1447.27 | −20.14 | 11.6 | 39.23 | 31.52 | 10.9429 |
February | 921.95 | 29.5 | 1253.4 | −11.23 | 11.85 | 39.26 | 31.49 | 11.1702 |
March | 1069.51 | 29.5 | 1229 | −0.403 | 11.62 | 39.23 | 31.52 | 10.9559 |
April | 1148.78 | 29.5 | 1108 | 11.58 | 10.47 | 39.06 | 31.65 | 9.89384 |
May | 1293.9 | 29.5 | 1102.8 | 20.14 | 10.42 | 39.08 | 31.67 | 9.8437 |
June | 1367.07 | 29.5 | 1109.5 | 23.45 | 10.49 | 39.05 | 31.65 | 9.90679 |
July | 1392.68 | 29.5 | 1182 | 20.44 | 11.17 | 39.23 | 31.57 | 10.5445 |
August | 1250 | 29.5 | 1202.5 | 11.75 | 11.36 | 39.17 | 31.55 | 10.7236 |
September | 1267.07 | 29.5 | 1451.6 | −0.2 | 13.71 | 39.43 | 31.19 | 12.9176 |
October | 1076.83 | 29.5 | 1476.6 | −11.75 | 13.95 | 39.51 | 31.16 | 13.1393 |
November | 1097.56 | 29.5 | 1749.5 | −20.44 | 16.53 | 39.69 | 30.73 | 15.5301 |
December | 852.439 | 29.5 | 1440.2 | −23.45 | 13.61 | 39.46 | 31.22 | 12.8171 |