Evolution of the Olive Oil Industry along the Entire Production Chain and Related Waste Management
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
3. Production Technologies
3.1. Production of Olives for the Oil Supply Chain
- The increase in production yields per unit area.
- The reduction of unit production costs through mechanization.
- The need to adapt to changes in the collection and cultivation by-products.
- The trend towards industrialization of the sector.
3.2. Processing Olives into Oil
- Washing, carried out with water to remove any residues of pesticides and woody and inorganic debris. Leaves, dust, and other light debris are removed in advance by blowing air.
- Malaxation, consisting in stirring, slowly and gently, the material obtained from the grinding to aggregate the oil dispersed between the aqueous and solid phases in drops for subsequent separation. Malaxation lasts about an hour, during which it is necessary to avoid the oxidation of polyphenols and control the release of volatile compounds that affect the olfactory quality of the final product [65]. For this purpose, modern machines are hermetic and allowed to operate in a controlled atmosphere or under a vacuum. Other modern measures concern light and rapid heating of the dough with non-traditional technologies and possibly the preventive de-stoning of the olives [66,67,68,69,70].
- Weighing.
- Temporary storage in stainless steel barrels.
- Final packaging in glass or metal containers (labelled and ready for marketing).
4. Technologies and Practice of Disposal
- Olive growing is rapidly evolving towards HD and SHD cultivation systems on non-marginal and irrigable land with a size suitable for profitable agro-industrial activity.
- For more than fifty years, traditional mills have been disappearing in favour of continuous centrifugal decanters, having a significantly higher potentiality, consistent with the evolution of olive production systems.
- Since the pomace of the two-phase or similar mills is very wet, the extraction of the residual oil is no longer economically convenient, and the pomace oil extraction plants will become less useful.
- The size and type of new olive groves and cultivation methods must provide for the mechanized harvesting of pruning that will become available to treatment along with the solid waste (SOMW) resulting from modern olive oil production.
4.1. Anaerobic Digestion
4.2. Composting
4.3. Thermal Treatments
4.4. Hydrothermal Treatments
4.5. Process Integration and Biorefinery
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Constituents | Pulp (%wt.) | Core (%wt.) | Whole Fruit (%wt.) |
---|---|---|---|
Water | 50–60 | 9.3 | 40–50 |
Oil | 15–30 | 0.7 | 27.3 |
Nitrogen containing compounds | 2–5 | 3.4 | 10.2 |
Carbohydrates | 6–13.5 | 79 | 8.5–28.5 |
Minerals | 1–2 | 4.1 | 1.5 |
Polyphenols (aromatic compounds) | 2–2.25 | 0.1 | 0.5–1 |
Others | - | 3.4 | 1.5–2 |
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Di Giacomo, G.; Romano, P. Evolution of the Olive Oil Industry along the Entire Production Chain and Related Waste Management. Energies 2022, 15, 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020465
Di Giacomo G, Romano P. Evolution of the Olive Oil Industry along the Entire Production Chain and Related Waste Management. Energies. 2022; 15(2):465. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020465
Chicago/Turabian StyleDi Giacomo, Gabriele, and Pietro Romano. 2022. "Evolution of the Olive Oil Industry along the Entire Production Chain and Related Waste Management" Energies 15, no. 2: 465. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15020465