Renewable Energy, Urbanization, and CO2 Emissions: A Global Test
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Urbanization–CO2 Emissions Nexus
2.2. Trade–CO2 Emissions Nexus
2.3. Energy–CO2 Emissions Nexus
3. Materials and Methods
4. Results
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
References
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Variables | Description | Mean | Std. Dev. | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
CO2 | CO2 emissions (metric tons per capita) | 4.15 | 5.27 | 0 | 44.53 |
GDP | GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international currency) | 14.94 | 17.88 | 0.46 | 114.21 |
Urbanization | Urban population (% of total population) | 56.81 | 23.24 | 8.46 | 100 |
Renewables | Renewable energy consumption (% of total final energy consumption) | 30.29 | 29.05 | 0 | 98.18 |
Trade | Trade as % of GDP | 76.10 | 47.64 | 0.22 | 538.56 |
Population | Population growth (annual %) | 1.55 | 1.43 | −5.08 | 16.03 |
Industry | Industry (including construction), value added (% of GDP) | 27.04 | 11.93 | 3.65 | 82.86 |
FDI | Foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP) | 9.20 | 51.62 | −8.96 | 952.57 |
Tourism | Tourism receipts as % of GDP | 6.26 | 10.54 | 0.01 | 82.71 |
I | II | III | IV | |
---|---|---|---|---|
CO2t−1 | 0.8014 | 0.6983 | 0.6771 | 0.6517 |
(70.40) *** | (53.68) *** | (44.09) *** | (41.30) *** | |
GDP | 0.0037 | 0.0040 | 0.0049 | 0.0060 |
(2.74) *** | (2.98) *** | (3.31) *** | (4.06) *** | |
GDP2 | −0.0000 | −0.0000 | −0.0000 | −0.0000 |
(3.14) *** | (2.99) *** | (2.86) *** | (3.62) *** | |
URBANIZATION | 0.0026 | 0.0048 | 0.0275 | |
(2.43) ** | (3.94) *** | (7.02) *** | ||
URBANIZATION2 | −0.0194 | |||
(6.09) *** | ||||
RENEWABLES | −0.0084 | −0.0116 | −0.0110 | |
(15.02) *** | (17.48) *** | (16.60) *** | ||
TRADE | 0.0002 | 0.0002 | ||
(1.28) | (1.01) | |||
POPULATION | −0.0006 | 0.0033 | ||
(0.14) | (0.72) | |||
INDUSTRY | 0.0030 | 0.0026 | ||
(4.27) *** | (3.63) *** | |||
FDI | −0.0000 | 0.0000 | ||
(0.00) | (0.09) | |||
TOURISM | 0.0001 | 0.0002 | ||
(0.25) | (0.45) | |||
Constant | 0.0929 | 0.2789 | 0.1558 | −0.4148 |
(4.94) *** | (4.67) *** | (2.03) ** | (3.44) *** | |
R2 | 0.67 | 0.70 | 0.73 | 0.73 |
N | 2940 | 2932 | 2167 | 2167 |
I | II | |
---|---|---|
CO2t−1 | 0.7160 | 0.7221 |
(19.21) *** | (22.75) *** | |
GDP | 0.0051 | 0.0084 |
(1.73) * | (3.05) *** | |
GDP2 | −0.0000 | −0.0000 |
(2.35) ** | (3.03) *** | |
URBANIZATION | 0.0029 | 0.0155 |
(1.96) * | (3.47) *** | |
URBANIZATION2 | −0.0133 | |
(3.54) *** | ||
RENEWABLES | −0.0136 | −0.0118 |
(9.15) *** | (9.53) *** | |
TRADE | 0.0002 | 0.0004 |
(0.73) | (1.75) * | |
POPULATION | 0.0127 | 0.0008 |
(1.48) | (0.10) | |
INDUSTRY | 0.0023 | −0.0014 |
(1.78) * | (1.15) | |
FDI | −0.0006 | −0.0004 |
(4.75) *** | (3.64) *** | |
TOURISM | −0.0032 | −0.0032 |
(3.42) *** | (4.51) *** | |
Constant | 0.3631 | 0.1222 |
(3.17) *** | (0.86) | |
AR 1 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
AR 2 | 0.316 | 0.311 |
Hansen test | 0.327 | 0.088 |
Fisher statistic | 1394.81 | |
Number of countries | 163 | 163 |
Number of instruments | 48 | 48 |
N | 2167 | 2167 |
I | II | III | |
---|---|---|---|
CO2t−1 | 0.8159 | 0.6161 | 0.8217 |
(26.22) *** | (18.66) *** | (31.87) *** | |
GDP | 0.0074 | 0.0271 | 0.0134 |
(1.69) * | (8.44) *** | (3.26) *** | |
GDP2 | −0.0001 | −0.0002 | −0.0002 |
(2.58) ** | (5.21) *** | (3.89) *** | |
URBANIZATION | 0.0060 | 0.0049 | 0.0029 |
(3.34) *** | (2.71) *** | (1.71) * | |
RENEWABLES | −0.0063 | −0.0101 | −0.0051 |
(4.94) *** | (6.87) *** | (4.49) *** | |
TRADE | 0.0025 | −0.0021 | 0.0022 |
(4.68) *** | (5.58) *** | (4.28) *** | |
POPULATION | 0.0245 | 0.0300 | 0.0190 |
(2.79) *** | (2.05) ** | (2.52) ** | |
INDUSTRY | −0.0019 | 0.0037 | 0.0026 |
(1.12) | (1.75) * | (1.30) | |
FDI | −0.0024 | 0.0007 | −0.0019 |
(8.30) *** | (2.61) ** | (6.73) *** | |
TOURISM | 0.0001 | 0.0120 | 0.0026 |
(0.02) | (2.09) ** | (0.51) | |
INTERNET | −0.0007 | ||
(1.32) | |||
PATENTS | 0.1950 | ||
(5.48) *** | |||
PATENTS2 | −0.0128 | ||
(4.99) *** | |||
FREEDOM | 0.0170 | ||
(0.60) | |||
Constant | −0.1884 | −0.6242 | −0.3872 |
(1.68) * | (3.63) *** | (1.49) | |
AR (1) | 0.002 | 0.089 | 0.002 |
AR (2) | 0.222 | 0.615 | 0.493 |
Hansen p-value | 0.051 | 0.214 | 0.187 |
Fisher statistic | 2173.59 | 2351.01 | 1705.44 |
Number of countries | 185 | 122 | 143 |
Number of instruments | 47 | 51 | 47 |
N | 825 | 505 | 601 |
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Gierałtowska, U.; Asyngier, R.; Nakonieczny, J.; Salahodjaev, R. Renewable Energy, Urbanization, and CO2 Emissions: A Global Test. Energies 2022, 15, 3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093390
Gierałtowska U, Asyngier R, Nakonieczny J, Salahodjaev R. Renewable Energy, Urbanization, and CO2 Emissions: A Global Test. Energies. 2022; 15(9):3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093390
Chicago/Turabian StyleGierałtowska, Urszula, Roman Asyngier, Joanna Nakonieczny, and Raufhon Salahodjaev. 2022. "Renewable Energy, Urbanization, and CO2 Emissions: A Global Test" Energies 15, no. 9: 3390. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093390