The Demand for Energy Imports from Non-Renewable Resources in EU-27 Economy
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Countries/Region Studied | Methodology | Causality Test Results |
---|---|---|
Japan (G7 countries) | ARDL model | Unidirectional causality [27] |
Top 38 energy consumption countries | Panel causality test | Unidirectional causality [28] |
Pakistan | VECM | Feedback relationship [29] |
China | Granger causality | Causality observed [30] |
OECD countries | Panel co-integration | Causality observed [31] |
Name of the Variable and Unit of Measure | Data Considered | Symbol |
---|---|---|
GDP [33] current prices, million euro | GDP | |
R&D [34], million euro | R&D All sectors R&D Business R&D Education R&D Government | RD_Total R_D_Bus R_D_Edu R_D_Gov |
GVA [35], current prices, million euro | Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Industry (except construction) Manufacturing Construction Wholesale and retail trade, transport, accommodation, and food service activities Information and communication Other (professional, scientific, and technical activities; administrative and support service activities; and public administration, defense, education, human health, and social work activities) | GVA_Agr GVA_Ind GVA_Man GVA_Constr GVA_Wholesale GVA_Inf_Comm GVA_Other |
Imports of energy [36] Terajoules | Imports—natural gas Imports—oil and petroleum Imports—solid fossil fuels Imports—NRES (imports natural gas + imports non-renewable waste + imports oil and petroleum + imports oil shale and oil sands + imports Peat and peat products + imports solid fossil fuels) | Imports_NG Imports_OP Imports_SFF Imports_NRES |
Country | Independent Variables | Adjusted R Square | Durbin–Watson | Unstandardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | ||||||
Belgium | 0.788 | 1.58 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.933 | 0.26 | 19.001 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −0.409 | 0.165 | −2.484 | 0.024 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −0.813 | 0.236 | −3.438 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 1.127 | 0.174 | 6.482 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | 0.297 | 0.072 | 4.115 | <0.001 | |||
Bulgaria | 0.884 | 2.47 | |||||
(Constant) | 1.659 | 0.382 | 4.339 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | 2.276 | 0.302 | 7.534 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −0.492 | 0.086 | −5.746 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −1.208 | 0.256 | −4.717 | <0.001 | |||
Czechia | 0.778 | 1.76 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.024 | 0.234 | 17.208 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −0.356 | 0.134 | −2.655 | 0.016 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 0.745 | 0.188 | 3.971 | <0.001 | |||
Denmark | 0.707 | 1.602 | |||||
(Constant) | 11.551 | 2.429 | 4.756 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | −3.773 | 3.972 | −3.467 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 3.519 | 1.474 | 2.388 | 0.03 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | 6.301 | 1.922 | 3.277 | 0.005 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 4.425 | 1.111 | 3.981 | 0.001 | |||
Estonia | 0.798 | 2.07 | |||||
(Constant) | 2.511 | 0.254 | 9.892 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 0.649 | 0.073 | 8.938 | <0.001 | |||
Finland | 0.59 | 2.2 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.476 | 0.254 | 17.63 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | 0.261 | 0.048 | 5.429 | <0.001 | |||
Germany | 0.88 | 2.25 | |||||
(Constant) | 5.747 | 0.476 | 12.064 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 0.571 | 0.138 | 4.147 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_gov | −0.544 | 0.078 | −7.015 | <0.001 | |||
Hungary | 0.9 | 1.5 | |||||
(Constant) | 2.997 | 0.234 | 12.824 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_agr | −0.321 | 0.122 | −2.627 | 0.018 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.304 | 0.065 | 4.678 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 1.301 | 0.255 | 5.113 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −0.832 | 0.21 | −3.958 | 0.001 | |||
Ireland | 0.799 | 1.7 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.02 | 0.417 | 9.648 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | −0.697 | 0.103 | −6.756 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_edu | −0.188 | 0.094 | −2.009 | 0.061 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | 0.897 | 0.175 | 5.126 | <0.001 | |||
Latvia | 0.88 | 2.23 | |||||
(Constant) | 1.868 | 0.277 | 6.751 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | 3.126 | 0.462 | 6.77 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −0.838 | 0.14 | −5.972 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | −1.918 | 0.414 | −4.636 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −0.397 | 0.13 | −3.06 | 0.007 | |||
Netherlands | 0.929 | 1.51 | |||||
(Constant) | 2.88 | 0.326 | 8.826 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −0.571 | 0.101 | −5.664 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | 1.366 | 0.138 | 9.884 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | −0.272 | 0.058 | −4.72 | <0.001 | |||
Romania | 0.811 | 1.76 | |||||
(Constant) | 3.629 | 0.425 | 8.532 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_agr | 0.432 | 0.138 | 3.134 | 0.006 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −0.364 | 0.103 | −3.527 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 0.221 | 0.108 | 2.047 | 0.057 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | 0.293 | 0.09 | 3.256 | 0.005 | |||
Slovakia | 0.678 | 2.3 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.691 | 0.122 | 38.336 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | −0.131 | 0.051 | −2.572 | 0.02 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 0.4 | 0.152 | 2.635 | 0.018 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | 0.435 | 0.195 | 2.237 | 0.04 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | −0.611 | 0.247 | −2.471 | 0.025 |
Adjusted R Square | Durbin–Watson | Unstandardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | |||||
Model | 0.873 | 2.080 | ||||
(Constant) | −3.546 | 1.730 | −2.050 | 0.047 | ||
LG10_GDP_total | 4.155 | 1.063 | 3.911 | 0.001 | ||
LG10_RD_EU | −0.796 | 0.206 | −3.858 | 0.001 | ||
LG10_GVA_Manufacturing | −0.890 | 0.373 | −2.386 | 0.030 | ||
LG10_GVA_Real_Estate | −1.465 | 0.645 | −2.272 | 0.037 |
Country | Independent Variables | Adjusted R Square | Durbin–Watson | Unstandardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | ||||||
Belgium | 0.665 | 1.944 | |||||
(Constant) | 5.233 | 0.366 | 14.311 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.757 | 0.334 | 2.27 | 0.037 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | 1.704 | 0.485 | 3.517 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −1.852 | 0.432 | −4.292 | <0.001 | |||
Croatia | 0.613 | 1.643 | |||||
(Constant) | 3.123 | 0.278 | 11.219 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_Bus | 0.679 | 0.125 | 5.428 | <0.001 | |||
Estonia | 0.913 | 2.28 | |||||
(Constant) | 6.362 | 0.145 | 43.881 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.867 | 0.094 | 9.262 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −1.228 | 0.096 | −12.85 | <0.001 | |||
Greece | 0.79 | 1.57 | |||||
(Constant) | 5.621 | 1.478 | 3.803 | 0.002 | |||
LG10_GVA_agr | −0.863 | 0.344 | −2.505 | 0.024 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.208 | 0.09 | 2.308 | 0.036 | |||
LG10_R_D_Bus | 0.741 | 0.144 | 5.149 | <0.001 | |||
Poland | 0.954 | 162 | |||||
(Constant) | 3.123 | 0.207 | 15.109 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −0.43 | 0.182 | −2.366 | 0.03 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 0.942 | 0.186 | 5.064 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_gov | −0.088 | 0.015 | −5.709 | <0.001 | |||
Portugal | 0.933 | 1.77 | |||||
(Constant) | −4.189 | 0.663 | −6.32 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | 2.626 | 0.288 | 9.131 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | −0.983 | 0.369 | −2.662 | 0.016 |
Adjusted R Square | Durbin–Watson | Unstandardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | |||||
Model | 0.917 | 1.901 | ||||
(Constant) | −3.483 | 1.629 | −2.138 | 0.048 | ||
LG10_RD_EU | −2.207 | 0.315 | −7.019 | <0.001 | ||
LG10_GVA_ GVA_Agr | 0.821 | 0.228 | 3.598 | 00.002 | ||
LG10_GVA_ GVA_Inf_Comm | −2.771 | 0.297 | −9.332 | <0.001 | ||
LG10_GVA_Other | 5.100 | 0.459 | 11.123 | <0.001 |
Country | Independent Variables | Adjusted R Square | Durbin–Watson | Unstandardized Coefficients | t | Sig. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
B | Std. Error | ||||||
Austria | 0.787 | 2.5 | |||||
(Constant) | 3.244 | 1.306 | 2.485 | 0.026 | |||
LG10_R_D_edu | −0.732 | −0.732 | −3.711 | 0.002 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 1.746 | 0.535 | 3.262 | 0.006 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −1.019 | 0.304 | −3.356 | 0.005 | |||
Belgium | 0.929 | 2.19 | |||||
(Constant) | 15.201 | 12.482 | <0.001 | ||||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −1.976 | −1.145 | −2.558 | 0.021 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 1.953 | 0.94 | 2.321 | 0.034 | |||
LG10_R_D_total | 1.483 | 1.481 | 2.785 | 0.013 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −3.246 | −2.16 | −2.866 | 0.011 | |||
Croatia | 0.353 | 2.195 | |||||
(Constant) | 5.6 | 0.369 | 15.173 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | −0.546 | 0.166 | -3.29 | 0.004 | |||
Czechia | 0.937 | 1.874 | |||||
(Constant) | 6.304 | 1.304 | 4.835 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_agr | −1.4 | 0.36 | −3.886 | 0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 1.787 | 0.423 | 4.226 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −1.913 | 0.492 | −3.889 | 0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | 1.378 | 0.308 | 4.48 | <0.001 | |||
Denmark | 0.833 | 2.49 | |||||
(Constant) | 17.57 | 1.341 | 13.105 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 1.117 | 0.555 | 2.013 | 0.06 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −3.812 | 0.599 | −6.362 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_gov | −0.77 | 0.171 | −4.493 | <0.001 | |||
Finland | 0.48 | 1.5 | |||||
(Constant) | 11.939 | 1.53 | 7.805 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | −1.284 | 0.29 | −4.427 | <0.001 | |||
Ireland | 0.83 | 2.37 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.883 | 1.7 | 2.873 | 0.011 | |||
LG10_GVA_inf_comm | −1.399 | 0.293 | −4.778 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_wholesale | 3.103 | 0.783 | 3.963 | 0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | −2.935 | 1.097 | −2.675 | 0.017 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 1.602 | 0.476 | 3.365 | 0.004 | |||
Lithuania | 0.59 | 1.83 | |||||
(Constant) | 4.408 | 0.764 | 5.772 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | −3.727 | 0.963 | −3.868 | 0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 3.491 | 0.936 | 3.731 | 0.002 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.881 | 0.279 | 3.156 | 0.006 | |||
Luxembourg | 0.87 | 1.99 | |||||
(Constant) | 6.84 | 0.727 | 9.407 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −1.336 | 0.381 | −3.506 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_GVA_ind | 0.619 | 0.318 | 1.949 | 0.07 | |||
LG10_R_D_edu | 0.331 | 0.092 | 3.598 | 0.003 | |||
LG10_R_D_gov | -0.817 | 0.239 | −3.425 | 0.004 | |||
Poland | 93.4 | 1.55 | |||||
(Constant) | −11.972 | 1.495 | −8.008 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GDP | 3.415 | 0.329 | 10.373 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_R_D_bus | −0.541 | 0.119 | −4.558 | <0.001 | |||
Slovakia | 0.815 | 1.5 | |||||
(Constant) | 6.977 | 0.198 | 35.312 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | 0.619 | 0.106 | 5.856 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_other | −0.946 | 0.126 | −7.504 | <0.001 | |||
Slovenia | 0.42 | 1.5 | |||||
(Constant) | 7.148 | 0.788 | 9.067 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_agr | −1.079 | 0.274 | −3.935 | <0.001 | |||
Sweden | 0.27 | 2.04 | |||||
(Constant) | 6.127 | 0.407 | 15.037 | <0.001 | |||
LG10_GVA_constr | −0.277 | 0.095 | −2.906 | 0.009 |
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Iancu, I.A.; Hendrick, P.; Micu, D.D.; Cirstea, S.D. The Demand for Energy Imports from Non-Renewable Resources in EU-27 Economy. Energies 2023, 16, 5177. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135177
Iancu IA, Hendrick P, Micu DD, Cirstea SD. The Demand for Energy Imports from Non-Renewable Resources in EU-27 Economy. Energies. 2023; 16(13):5177. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135177
Chicago/Turabian StyleIancu, Ioana Ancuta, Patrick Hendrick, Dan Doru Micu, and Stefan Dragos Cirstea. 2023. "The Demand for Energy Imports from Non-Renewable Resources in EU-27 Economy" Energies 16, no. 13: 5177. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135177