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Review

A Review of Green, Low-Carbon, and Energy-Efficient Research in Sports Buildings

by
Feng Qian
1,2,*,
Zedao Shi
1 and
Li Yang
1,2,*
1
College of Architecture & Urban Planing, Tongji University, 1239 Si Ping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
2
Key Laboratory of Ecology and Energy Saving Study of Dense Habitat, Tongji University, Ministry of Education, Siping Rd.1239, Shanghai 200092, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2024, 17(16), 4020; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164020
Submission received: 1 July 2024 / Revised: 31 July 2024 / Accepted: 12 August 2024 / Published: 14 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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Abstract

:
The demand for low-carbon and energy-efficient building designs is urgent, especially considering that building energy consumption constitutes a significant part of global energy usage. Unlike small to medium-sized buildings such as residential and office spaces, large public buildings, like sports facilities, have unique usage patterns and architectural forms, offering more significant potential for energy-saving strategies. This review focuses on sports buildings, selecting 62 high-quality papers published in building science over the past 30 years that investigate low-carbon and energy-efficient research. Summarizing and synthesizing these papers reveals that current studies predominantly concentrate on four main areas: indoor air quality, ventilation, thermal environment, and energy consumption. Notably, many studies emphasize improving indoor thermal comfort and reducing energy consumption in sports buildings through measurements and evaluations of indoor thermal environments, temperature distributions, heat transfer phenomena, and energy consumption analyses. Key outcomes indicate that green technology innovations, such as energy substitution technologies, significantly enhance energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions. However, present research emphasizes singular energy-saving approaches, suggesting future directions could integrate comprehensive green technologies, life-cycle assessments, and applications of intelligent technologies and the Internet of Things (IoT). These enhancements aim to provide more effective and sustainable solutions for implementing green, low-carbon energy practices in sports buildings. The review emphasizes that in order to accomplish sustainable urban growth and achieve global carbon neutrality targets, a comprehensive approach involving technical innovation, legislative assistance, and extensive preparation is crucial.

1. Introduction

The global urbanization process has sped up in recent years, and the rapid development of information and communication technology (ICT) and the Internet of Things (IoT) has created the prerequisites for a massive implementation of the brilliant city concept. Smart cities aim to move toward sustainability by employing new technologies for urban management and services and enhancing resource efficiency and quality-of-life services in urban settlements. At the same time, as human society evolves, spatial needs have gradually evolved too, leading to the diversification and increasing number of public buildings to meet various functional requirements. These large public buildings, such as sports facilities, play an essential role in urban functionality and smart city greening, low-carbonization, and energy-saving work [1,2].
Aiming to reduce CO2 emissions and achieve sustainable development of the environment, economy, and society, low-carbon development is an innovative approach to political and economic growth [3]. This aspiration usually involves huge efforts through rigorous research and practical applications. Due to rising concerns about environmental sustainability, green technology innovation has gained increasing recognition. It has the potential to improve energy efficiency by enhancing total carbon productivity through mitigating effects. Since energy efficiency (EE) may greatly reduce emissions and contribute to a more viable future, it is a vital aspect of sustainable development [4]. Energy substitution technologies can mitigate CO2 emissions by delivering clean energy [5].
In the research, we concentrate on specific types of sporting facilities that require significant energy usage, notably for ventilation. These structures are typically semi-enclosed or entirely enclosed, providing a higher level of enclosure than open-air stadiums. Facilities with adaptable indoor and outdoor arrangements, such as stadiums, swimming pools, and sports centers, take into account weather conditions and usually require unique demand profiles and operational requirements, which result in massive energy consumption [6].
The key rationale for picking these sports facilities is that they have the appropriate space qualities to meet their functional requirements. Sports buildings are purpose-built to accommodate various activities. This functional distinctiveness implies unique architectural and engineering solutions. Furthermore, the environmental characteristics of these sporting facilities, particularly their ventilation, are critical, given the flow of large crowds during specific events.
Construction is a massive contributor to carbon emissions, while construction and building design are regarded as the biggest levers for long-term carbon reduction [7]. In our previous research, we have seen an increasing number of studies on creative low-carbon design and renewable energy utilization in buildings [8]. Countries or cities selected to host a sports event typically have to repair old sports stadiums and houses, lay down new world-class sports infrastructure, and overall build towards the ability to cater to large crowds. As a result, these high-carbon practices can considerably boost on-site carbon emissions over the planning and construction stages [9,10].
According to the United Nations Environment Program, environmental impacts include soil and water pollution, soil erosion caused by construction and spectators during events, waste generated by building facilities and spectators, noise and light pollution, the consumption of non-renewable resources, the depletion of natural resources, and greenhouse gas emissions [11]. Various studies indicate that in China, the energy consumption of large public buildings is 2–4 times that of small private buildings and 10–20 times that of residential buildings. Sports facilities like stadiums are typical examples of large public buildings, characterized by their unique scale and energy demands. The “Healthy China 2030” policy anticipates rapid growth in the construction of sports facilities. A recent stimulation on the environmental parameter again proves the low carbon consideration in large public buildings, especially sports buildings, which are usually spacious and may require high energy consumption and also good ventilation to meet their distinctive demand profiles and operational demands [12]. Therefore, there is an urgent need to research the low-carbon development of sports facilities.
In response to these challenges, many review articles on green building research have emerged in recent years. Some of these articles review and forecast overall green building research and its future trends [13,14,15]; others review green building assessment methods and rating systems [16,17,18,19]; and some provide national-level reviews or comparative studies on green building and building energy efficiency [20,21,22]. Additionally, some review articles focus on specific aspects of green building, such as building materials [23,24], renewable energy [25,26], zero-energy building [27,28], and the application of artificial intelligence [29]. There are also many articles reviewing energy-saving measures for different building types, but most concentrate on residential buildings [30,31,32], office buildings [33], and historical heritage buildings [34]. In the field of sports building, review studies often focus on a single type of sports building or building technology due to the complexity of the building’s requirements in the design progress. For example, Yuan X et al. reviewed the heating energy-saving potential of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems in swimming pool buildings [35], and Li Y et al. reviewed heating technologies for swimming pool buildings [36]. As the number of sports buildings has significantly increased in recent years, research on green energy-saving and low-carbon design in sports buildings has also grown substantially.
Commercial buildings, which are highly occupied in human living environments, have received significant attention for achieving energy efficiency due to their extensive use of energy-intensive flexible loads such as heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems [37]. Recent studies have highlighted the importance of these buildings in energy management. The similarity of some requirements across large buildings provides a strong basis for these studies. In the studies by Hosseini, Carli, and Dotoli, a novel, robust model predictive control (MPC) approach for online energy scheduling of multiple commercial buildings comprising individual HVAC systems, energy storage systems (ESSs), and non-controllable loads has been proposed. The performance of this approach was assessed through a simulated, realistic case study. The research demonstrated effective strategies for minimizing total expected energy costs while ensuring occupants’ thermal comfort and addressing uncertainty in electricity prices. Such research provides valuable insights into advanced energy management [38].
However, there is still a lack of comprehensive review articles on recent advancements in green, energy-saving research specifically focused on sports buildings. This study aims to fill that gap by investigating the current practices and innovations in green, low-carbon, and energy-saving approaches for sports buildings. By summarizing the best practices and latest technologies in this field, the study provides valuable reference solutions that can be applied to other types of large public buildings.

2. Methodology

In the review, the PRISMA Checklist (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses), which helps researchers improve the reporting of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, is used to verify the professionalism of the literature analysis [39]. We used search engines like Science Direct and Web of Science to review research on the energy-saving aspects of sports building. As shown in Figure 1, the screening process was divided into four steps. First, we identified research articles and conference papers as primary sources of information. We identified search terms based on research topics, particularly “Gymnasium or Sports Center or Natatorium” and “Energy Consumption or Green Building Design or Low-carbon City”, covering the fields of engineering, environment, energy, and architecture. The search spanned the last 30 years and yielded about 2585 articles. There were 801 duplicate articles in the Science Direct and Web of Science search results. In the second screening, we removed these 801 articles. In the third screening, we screened out non-compliant literature based on top journals (SCI Q1) and top conference papers (EI), leaving 126 articles in the end. Finally, we further analyzed and summarized the content and research methods of these 126 papers, excluding studies unrelated to the paper’s analysis, such as stadium structure design and risk prediction, leaving 62 articles for analysis and review.
Based on these 62 papers, Figure 2 shows the trend of the number of publications and years. As shown in the figure, the number of articles on low-carbon energy-saving in sports buildings has increased significantly since 2018, tripling the average annual publication volume of previous years. Among these 62 papers, based on different research contents, we divided them into five categories: air quality, ventilation, thermal environment, energy, and others. Research on air quality mainly focuses on the sources and concentrations of indoor and outdoor air pollutants and their health impacts, discussing air quality management measures and their applications in sports buildings, including using sensors and monitoring equipment to assess and improve air quality. Ventilation covers the design and optimization of natural and mechanical ventilation systems, studying how ventilation systems can improve indoor air quality and thermal comfort, and exploring the applications and effects of different ventilation strategies in sports buildings. Thermal Environment focuses on thermal comfort and thermal environment control within sports buildings, studying how building design affects the thermal environment, including insulation materials and solar radiation management, and including models and simulations to evaluate and optimize the thermal environment. Energy involves the energy consumption and management strategies of sports buildings, researching the application of renewable energy such as solar, wind, and geothermal energy, and discussing how energy-saving technologies and measures can reduce the carbon emissions and energy usage of buildings. Others include research that falls outside of the above four categories but is still related to the low-carbon energy savings of sports buildings, such as life cycle assessment, sustainable material use, and smart building systems. The classification of these categories is based on the research content of the literature, with some overlap in certain documents. For instance, air quality research may use ventilation methods, while energy research may include studies related to the thermal environment. We classified documents based on their primary focus, without multiple-category or repeated classifications.
Figure 3 shows the proportion of papers in the five major categories after classifying the 62 papers in the past 30 years. As seen in Figure 2, there are 34 papers on the thermal environment of sports buildings, dominating the field of low-carbon energy-saving in sports buildings. This field’s research continues to grow as requirements for building comfort and energy efficiency increase, particularly focusing on optimizing thermal environment design and control measures to improve energy utilization efficiency and indoor comfort in recent years. Ventilation research also holds an important position in low-carbon energy-saving research in sports buildings. Air quality-related literature is relatively scarce, with only six papers currently and only two in the last five years. Although energy research is not numerous, studies in this field have increased significantly in recent years, reflecting the importance of renewable energy in reducing carbon emissions and improving energy efficiency in sports buildings. Additionally, the Others category of research has also shown a significant increase, indicating growing attention to these comprehensive studies in recent years, showcasing the potential of multidisciplinary research in addressing complex environmental issues.

3. Literature Review

In recent years, the literature has mainly focused on applying green low-carbon strategies in sports architecture design, particularly in the four critical areas of building thermal performance, ventilation systems, indoor air quality, and energy efficiency. Additionally, research concentrates on applying circular economy and sustainable design, energy efficiency and energy-saving technologies, green building materials and structures, lighting and visual comfort, and integrated green technologies (Figure 4).

3.1. Air Quality

In sports architecture, the primary indoor air pollutants include NOx, CO, CO2, TVOCs, and SO2, as well as PM2.5 and PM10 particulates. The sources of these pollutants can often be traced to combustion equipment, such as ice resurfacing machines and heating devices, vehicle emissions, building materials, and human activities, such as smoking by spectators. The concentration of indoor pollutants significantly increases during the operation of combustion equipment and the heating season. Furthermore, the concentration of indoor pollutants also significantly increases during significant events like sports competitions or performances [40,41]. Table 1 is the statistical analysis of literature on air quality.
ACH, short for Air Changes per Hour, is one of the indicators used to measure indoor air quality. The calculation method for ACH involves summing the total amount of “clean” air entering a room and dividing it by the room volume. The “clean” air indoors can be computed as the sum of ventilation, air recirculated by HVAC systems (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) with filtration, and air purification provided by portable air purifiers equipped with High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters (Figure 5).
Ventilation has a crucial impact on the air quality of sports buildings. Natural and mechanical ventilation are the two main types of ventilation, each with advantages and disadvantages. Natural ventilation can quickly respond to changes in outdoor air quality, but its efficiency is greatly affected by weather conditions and external pollution, leading to fluctuations in indoor air quality. Through filtration and air exchange mechanisms in HVAC systems, mechanical ventilation can provide more stable and controllable indoor airflow compared to natural ventilation. Studies have found that mechanical ventilation can effectively remove indoor pollutants when the number of people in a sports venue reaches a certain level or when individuals are engaged in intense physical activities. Additionally, practical assessments have shown that optimizing the configuration and operation of mechanical ventilation systems can significantly enhance indoor air quality in sports venues, thereby ensuring the health and comfort of building users [42,43].
Although mechanical ventilation can provide a certain level of air exchange, increasing the ventilation rate is insufficient to improve indoor air quality significantly. To further enhance air quality, researchers recommend using air purifiers equipped with HEPA filters and activated carbon filters to reduce the concentration of PM (Particulate Matter) and VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds). Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that composite filters using Titanium Dioxide (TiO2) and activated carbon (AC) (TiO2/AC) perform exceptionally well in treating indoor air pollutants in low-concentration, high-humidity environments, showing strong application potential [44,45].

3.2. Low Carbon Ventilation

In sports architecture, the main types of ventilation schemes are natural, mechanical, and mixed-mode. As shown in Figure 6a,b, natural ventilation is a process that utilizes wind and thermal buoyancy to exchange indoor and outdoor air. Its application in large buildings, such as stadiums, is attractive because it can maintain a comfortable and healthy indoor environment while reducing energy consumption. Table 2 is the statistical analysis of literature on vebtilation.
Wind-driven ventilation has significant advantages in large, semi-enclosed sports buildings, but its effectiveness depends on the building’s design and wind pressure distribution. Studies show that rationally placing intake and exhaust vents in building design, appropriately increasing the area and number of vents, and using streamlined designs or external deflectors to reduce wind resistance can promote airflow using natural wind pressure differences and buoyancy effects, ensuring smooth and even air distribution in large spaces. Additionally, the internal layout can be designed to minimize partitions and obstacles, ensuring air flows smoothly throughout the building and enhancing air movement using skylights, windows, and other natural ventilation openings, thereby reducing reliance on mechanical ventilation and improving overall ventilation effectiveness [47,48].
Thermal buoyancy-driven ventilation plays a vital role in large sports buildings. By optimizing building design and vent configuration, ventilation efficiency can be significantly improved, enhancing indoor air quality. Studies show that increasing the area of high ventilation openings can significantly improve ventilation efficiency, especially in the summer. Additionally, the effectiveness of thermal buoyancy ventilation is greatly influenced by wind direction and surrounding buildings. Wind direction affects the indoor-outdoor temperature difference, thereby affecting the strength of the buoyancy effect. With fewer obstructions, the effectiveness of thermal buoyancy-driven ventilation is better. Generally, thermal buoyancy-driven natural ventilation can be combined with wind-driven ventilation to form a more effective ventilation system. Under certain wind speed conditions, combining buoyancy effects can significantly enhance the ventilation efficiency of the building [49]. Additionally, air infiltration is a primary source of winter heat load in large-space buildings, and studies show that controlling air infiltration paths can significantly reduce heat loss [54].
Ventilation in sports buildings mainly relies on mechanical ventilation. Mechanical ventilation systems, implemented through HVAC systems, can provide more stable and controllable airflow. However, the energy consumption issues associated with HVAC systems continue to raise concerns. In high-temperature environments, the operation frequency of air conditioning systems increases, leading to significant energy consumption growth. By reasonably positioning ventilation openings and optimizing duct design, the uniformity and efficiency of air distribution can be significantly improved, thereby enhancing indoor air quality and thermal comfort. Choosing suitable HVAC equipment is vital to ensuring the economic efficiency and effectiveness of the system, such as using high-efficiency heat exchangers and equipment with variable frequency control technology. Additionally, sensor-driven automated control systems can intelligently adapt to changes in indoor and outdoor environments, optimizing HVAC system operation to reduce energy consumption and enhance user comfort [55].
In practice, most buildings do not adopt a single ventilation method but instead use a combination of natural and mechanical ventilation in a hybrid-driven ventilation system (Figure 6c). Pouranian et al. have demonstrated that a compliant ventilation system can be formed by integrating renewable energy technologies, such as solar energy, with Earth-to-Air Heat Exchangers (EAHE). This system has shown excellent performance in reducing air pollutants and humidity in hot and dry environments, significantly improving the ACH [46,56].
Precise control of indoor temperature and humidity is crucial for specific sports facilities, such as indoor swimming pools and ice rinks. To ensure air quality and user comfort, efficient ventilation measures must be implemented. Panaras et al. suggest combining forced ventilation (mechanical ventilation) strategies with natural ventilation to improve the ventilation effect in indoor swimming pools [52]. Limane et al. used OpenFOAM to simulate airflow and heat-mass transfer in an indoor swimming pool, evaluating the performance of existing ventilation systems. The study results showed that external climate conditions and swimmer activity significantly affect the internal environment of the pool [51]. Ciuman P. and Lipska B. experimentally validated numerical air, heat, and moisture flow models in indoor swimming pools, assessing the performance of existing ventilation systems. Through experimental validation and model optimization, specific recommendations were made to improve the pool’s ventilation system, significantly enhancing air quality after optimization [50]. Palmowska A. and Lipska B. analyzed the thermal and humidity conditions of ventilated ice rinks through experiments and numerical predictions, evaluating the performance of existing ventilation systems. The results indicated that a reasonable ventilation design can effectively control humidity and temperature within the ice rink, providing a comfortable environment [53].

3.3. Thermal Environment

As previously mentioned, the two kinds of sports buildings, semi-enclosed and fully enclosed sports buildings, have different influencing factors on their thermal environment control. Although both are affected by their surroundings, the key factors influencing the two buildings’ thermal environments are different. Semi-enclosed sports architecture is dominated by passive factors such as natural ventilation, solar shading control, material properties, and landscape integration. For fully enclosed sports architecture, although the materials are essential for regulating the building’s thermal environment, they are more dominated by mechanical factors such as HVAC systems, lighting, and smart control systems (Figure 7). In the selected literature, we found that current research on the thermal environment of sports buildings mainly focuses on five aspects: indoor thermal environment measurement and evaluation, temperature distribution, heat transfer, energy consumption analysis, and comprehensive studies. Table 3 is the statistical analysis of literature on thermal environment.

3.3.1. Thermal Comfort

  • Measurement of the indoor thermal environment
The main focus of indoor environment measurement in sports buildings is thermal environment parameters, including temperature, humidity, and wind speed. The usual methods involve on-site measurement and analysis. These studies are typically conducted under different seasonal and usage conditions to comprehensively understand the indoor thermal environment and provide foundational data for subsequent numerical simulations and optimizations. Through these measurements, the performance of existing ventilation and air conditioning systems can be evaluated, thermal comfort issues identified, and improvement suggestions proposed.
The characteristics of thermal environment measurement in the indoor environment of sports buildings include multi-point distribution measurement, real-time monitoring and data recording, the combination of natural and mechanical ventilation, the application of infrared thermal imaging technology, and data processing and analysis. These characteristics ensure comprehensive monitoring of the large space environment, helping to improve thermal comfort, air quality, and energy efficiency [57,58,60,61,63,65].
  • Thermal Comfort Assessment
Thermal comfort evaluation mainly studies the impact of the indoor thermal environment on users’ comfort in sports buildings. There are seven common thermal comfort indices used for assessing indoor thermal environments: PMV (Predicted Mean Vote), DI (Discomfort Index), CPI (Cooling Power Index), Humidex, WBGT (Wet Bulb Globe Temperature), SET (Standard Effective Temperature), and UTCI (Universal Thermal Climate Index). Researchers can choose an appropriate evaluation index based on specific measurement criteria to assess thermal comfort indoors [66].
When evaluating thermal comfort, it is essential to consider environmental parameters such as air temperature, relative humidity, air velocity, and mean radiant temperature, as well as individual perception and objective physiological indicators. Additionally, factors like season, time of day, and type of physical activity should be comprehensively considered, as they influence thermal comfort assessments [68].
Technically, a combined approach of on-site measurements and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation is commonly adopted. In on-site measurement and analysis, some scholars have applied infrared thermography technology to measure thermal comfort in sports buildings, achieving more efficient results compared to traditional methods [64]. In addition to on-site measurement and analysis methods, CFD simulation is a commonly used computer simulation technique for thermal comfort evaluation in sports buildings. Additionally, some studies combine CFD technology with Genetic Algorithms (GA) and Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) to improve the accuracy and reliability of thermal comfort evaluation, showing significant potential [67].
Moreover, studies have shown that athletes exhibit better adaptability during physical activity, which may lead to overestimating thermal discomfort in the design standards of current evaluation indices, such as the PMV model. Therefore, the design and operation of sports buildings must consider users’ unique needs more thoroughly. Taking Galatsi Arena as a case study, the PMV equation was applied to assess the thermal comfort of the specific occupants, both spectators and athletes [59].
  • Design Optimization Study
Some studies integrate multiple methods, such as indoor thermal environment measurement and assessment, temperature distribution, heat transfer, and energy consumption analysis, to investigate the thermal environment of sports buildings. These studies typically focus on a specific sports building case, analyzing the impacts of its architectural design, HVAC systems, solar radiation, ventilation systems, etc., to propose measures for improving indoor thermal conditions [53,62]. The indoor swimming pool is the highlight of the sports buildings for the studies conducted.
Numerous studies focus on thermal comfort to identify the physical phenomena occurring in the actual indoor swimming pool. Research has found that air-supported membrane structures, especially double-layer ones, significantly enhance thermal environments and improve energy efficiency in sports buildings [69]. Deeper research is conducted in several studies, especially on the building envelope designs, proposing the application of the materials affecting the indoor thermal environment of the architecture. Retractable membrane ceilings are often used in enclosed, large-span swimming pools due to their advantages in temperature control, energy management, air circulation, and structural safety. Through proper design and optimization of the ceiling’s opening and closing states and materials application, indoor thermal comfort in swimming pool buildings can be effectively improved, thereby reducing energy consumption and enhancing building performance, representing a future trend in swimming pool building design [69,88,89]. Through analyzing the studies, an air-supported membrane structure can be notified as the most widely used building envelope structure in the mentioned building, which is related to its consideration of the building structure.

3.3.2. Heat Transfer

Inside sports buildings, significant air temperature stratification is observed. Measurements indicate noticeable temperature differences at various heights, typically averaging a 4 °C increase per meter in the vertical temperature gradient within the arena [70,71]. The distribution of indoor temperatures exhibits distinct temporal variations influenced by varying solar radiation intensity throughout the day, accentuating thermal stratification, particularly during hot seasons [75]. Additionally, external temperature fluctuations across seasons significantly impact indoor thermal layering, with colder winter temperatures exacerbating stratification and milder transitional seasons tempering it [75]. Wind speed notably affects temperature distribution; studies demonstrate that higher wind speeds significantly lower roof temperatures, effectively mitigating indoor thermal stratification [76,77].
Furthermore, humidity distribution also significantly influences indoor temperature variation within sports arenas. In specialized environments such as ice rinks, increased humidity notably alters temperature distribution and directly impacts air density and temperature gradients. Research indicates that condensation and frost near the ice surface significantly affect the vertical distribution of temperature and humidity indoors [78].
Heat transfer within sports buildings results from the combined effects of radiation, convection, and conduction, influenced by humidity and temporal variations. Optimizing air distribution systems, using appropriate building materials, and controlling humidity effectively improve sports buildings’ thermal comfort and energy efficiency.
Radiative heat transfer is a primary factor influencing the thermal environment of sports buildings. Radiation includes solar radiation and indoor lighting radiation. In open or semi-open sports venues, solar radiation enters through open roofs, directly impacting temperature distribution and heat loads. Research indicates that using building materials with low emissivity coefficients effectively reduces heat loss through radiation, thereby lowering the occurrence of condensation on surfaces within the venue [73,74].
Convective heat transfer is crucial for ensuring internal thermal comfort. Studies show that mechanical ventilation systems facilitate air intake through sidewall nozzles or upper-level air supply outlets, where warm air rises and exits through roof exhaust vents, creating adequate convective circulation. This circulation helps maintain uniform temperature and humidity distribution, especially in spectator stands and athletic areas [72].
Conductive heat transfer occurs through building envelope structures such as walls, floors, and roofs. The thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of building materials determine the rate of heat conduction. Research highlights the significance of heat conduction in regions with significant temperature gradients, where different materials’ thermal transmittance directly impacts the venue’s energy efficiency and comfort [79].
Additionally, humidity and condensation significantly affect heat transfer. Higher humidity increases air thermal conductivity, altering temperature distribution. Dehumidification equipment reduces air humidity, minimizing condensation, especially in specialized environments like ice rinks. Controlling humidity and using low-emissivity materials help reduce condensation and enhance thermal comfort. Research also finds significant time dependence in heat transfer. Variations in solar radiation intensity, the operation of mechanical ventilation systems, and changes in internal activity levels fluctuate heat transfer rates. Transient simulation analysis shows higher heat transfer rates during the day due to solar radiation and high activity levels, contrasting with lower rates at night [80].

3.3.3. Energy Consumption Analysis

In the energy consumption analysis of sports building thermal environments, multiple factors interact significantly, affecting energy usage and thermal comfort. Research indicates that roof design, building envelope forms, attendance rates, air permeability, and natural ventilation systems influence energy consumption [81,82,83,84,86,87].
Reasonable design of the roof and facade forms helps improve the thermal environment of sports buildings. Studies have found that cantilevered roofs accelerate airflow above spectator stands, enhancing air movement and increasing thermal comfort. Additionally, sloped roofs over playing areas create more substantial and uniform airflow than flat roofs within the sports arena. In terms of facade design, high-porosity facades enhance air circulation, and uniformly distributed small openings produce more even airflow compared to larger, concentrated openings [81].
In indoor swimming pools, spectator attendance rates significantly impact indoor temperature and humidity. Increasing attendance rates correlate with higher indoor temperatures and PMV values, while humidity decreases. Research suggests optimizing ventilation systems and controlling air nozzles can enhance thermal comfort while reducing energy consumption and evaporation rates [82].
Optimizing air permeability and natural ventilation systems is crucial for reducing energy consumption in sports buildings. Studies indicate that regions or seasons with significant indoor-outdoor temperature differences exhibit higher air permeability, significantly affecting energy consumption in sports buildings. Strategies such as increasing mechanical ventilation rates and optimizing the size and placement of building openings can reduce air permeability and lower energy usage. In tropical and subtropical regions, efficient design of natural ventilation systems is pivotal for energy conservation [84,86].
Furthermore, in research methodologies, scholars utilize ANN models for intelligent prediction and control of indoor energy consumption in sports buildings. This approach provides new technological means for energy efficiency management in sports buildings, contributing to energy-saving goals and enhancing user comfort experiences [85,90].

3.4. Energy

In the energy-efficient design of public buildings, the core issue focuses on energy utilization efficiency. Given their unique usage characteristics, sports building designs often exhibit significant and varied energy demands. To achieve energy-efficient design, it is essential to prioritize optimizing energy management systems, integrating efficient equipment, and incorporating renewable energy sources to enhance energy efficiency and reduce consumption. In recent years, literature in the energy field has emphasized passive solar strategies, photovoltaic systems, and integrated energy solutions for energy-efficient sports building design. Table 4 is the statistical analysis of literature on energy.
Researchers have found that incorporating passive solar techniques in the envelope structures of sports buildings facing away from the equator, such as skylights, clerestory windows, and roof monitors, can significantly reduce heating, lighting, and ventilation energy consumption. These systems have demonstrated sound energy-saving effects across different climate conditions. Therefore, adapting appropriate passive solar design strategies tailored to sports buildings can help reduce energy consumption and enhance indoor environmental comfort [91].
Photovoltaic systems, which generate electricity using solar panels, are widely used in sports buildings. However, their electricity generation depends on weather conditions, leading to fluctuations and intermittency. The accumulation of dust significantly reduces the efficiency of photovoltaic modules. Hence, regular cleaning of photovoltaic modules is crucial for maintaining their performance [93].
Energy consumption may be decreased by utilizing high-efficiency heat pumps, specifically when regulating humidity and temperature. The energy requirements of conventional ventilation and air conditioning systems have been substantially reduced by this technology, creating an effective energy-saving technique [94]. Integrated energy systems combine electric vehicles, battery storage, and photovoltaic power generation simultaneously. These systems’ intelligent administration and efficient design significantly boost the efficiency of energy use. Research has indicated that the integration of photovoltaic systems with storage and electric vehicles may reduce building peak loads and save carbon emissions. The use of these integrated systems in sporting facilities shows how highly promising sustainable energy solutions may be [96].
Several energy efficiency and conservation technologies that are efficient and robust have been proposed and tested. For example, slowing pump speeds and flow rates, as pump energy is proportional to the square of the flow rate, can assist in the possibility of energy savings [92]. Consideration of design parameters including internal and external wall types, roof types, solar absorptance, and window shading, as well as night ventilation (NV) and displacement ventilation (DV) air conditioning systems, with the integration of advanced optimization algorithms like the Nondominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II (NSGA-II) with a Multilayer Perception Artificial Neural Network (MLPANN) metamodel, can effectively boost energy efficiency [95].

3.5. Others

In addition to the four major categories summarized earlier, research has explored low-carbon and energy-saving strategies for sports buildings from perspectives such as circular economy and sustainable design [97,98], green building materials and structures [99], lighting and visual comfort [100], and integrated green technology applications [101]. The advancement of low-carbon design to maximize the functionality of green facilities is widely discussed in related research. Table 5 is the statistical analysis of literature on others.
These studies, through specific cases and empirical research, demonstrate the wide-ranging applications and significant effects of green technologies, which can achieve low-carbon development. By optimizing resource utilization, enhancing energy efficiency, and adopting innovative materials and technologies, sports facilities can significantly reduce environmental impacts while generating social and economic benefits. These findings provide valuable insights and actionable solutions for future sports-building projects.
With the rapid development and implementation of green technologies, especially the IoT, there are more possibilities for the low-carbon development of sports buildings. The potential of IoT for technological advancements through smart technologies is extensive. This technology focuses on enabling communication between all devices and applies to various areas such as agriculture, industry, healthcare, and smart cities. The goal is to enable the sustainable and gradual implementation of IoT technologies [102]. Numerous studies have demonstrated how the IoT can enhance sustainability in construction practices. Specifically, IoT implementation in smart buildings can improve energy efficiency and optimize energy expenditure and production [103,104].

4. Discussion and Conclusions

This study reviews and summarizes high-quality papers on green, low-carbon energy research in sports buildings over the past 30 years and provides insights into future research directions.
1. Current research on green, low-carbon energy strategies for sports buildings primarily focuses on five main areas: indoor air quality, ventilation, thermal environment, energy efficiency, and renewable energy sources. Research in the thermal environment domain is pervasive, aiming to optimize indoor thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption through measurements, evaluations of temperature distributions, heat transfer analyses, and energy consumption assessments. In ventilation strategies, scholars explore natural, mechanical, and hybrid ventilation to improve air quality and thermal comfort while minimizing energy use. Studies on indoor air quality aim to identify indoor pollutants and improve air quality in sports arenas through appropriate ventilation strategies and air purification technologies. Energy-related studies involve using renewable energies, such as solar and wind power, and implementing high-efficiency technologies and systems. Additionally, some literature examines approaches in circular economy and sustainable design, energy efficiency technologies, green building materials and structures, lighting, visual comfort, and integrated applications of green technologies.
2. Despite significant progress in researching green, low-carbon energy practices in sports buildings, current studies have several areas for improvement. Firstly, most research focuses on singular aspects, needing a more comprehensive integration of multiple green technologies. For example, while there is substantial work on individual technologies like HVAC systems or specific renewable energy sources, there is a notable gap in research that integrates these into a holistic building system. Secondly, there needs to be more comprehensive life-cycle assessments, making evaluating the long-term environmental impacts of sports building projects difficult. For instance, many sports venues involve substantial construction costs due to their design for large-scale occasions, but they often experience low utilization after these occasions. Overall, assessing the full spectrum of environmental impacts—from construction through operation and eventual decommissioning—is crucial, as these aspects are key to understanding the carbon footprint of sports buildings.
3. Moreover, there is still a lack of consideration for the dynamic interaction between different building components and external environmental factors which can advance the accuracy of the stimulation. Additionally, existing policy frameworks and regulatory standards are often inadequate to fully support and enforce the adoption of these integrated practices, being one of the key restrictions on the green development progress which requires huge investment. Current research methods for simulation still exhibit limitations too. Traditional approaches often fail to account for the complex interactions between various green technologies and their combined effects on energy efficiency and environmental impact. However, advanced methods have been proposed to address these gaps. For instance, new calculation methods for the mass flux of evaporated moisture have been developed, incorporating previously undeveloped formulas from sources such as VDI, Carrier, and Smith. These advancements have shown potential for producing more accurate simulation results when combined with existing major calculation methods. Integrating these advanced methods with current practices could greatly enhance the accuracy of simulations and provide more reliable insights for optimizing green technologies in sports buildings. This area holds significant promise for further improvement, with considerable potential to advance the field of green technology development.
4. The development of green technologies varies significantly across regions, with some areas lacking the necessary infrastructure for full utilization. For example, IoT technologies require stable network coverage, which is not universally available. Existing policy frameworks and regulatory standards often fall short of fully supporting and enforcing the adoption of these practices, which require substantial investment. Despite the significant potential of green technologies to reduce carbon emissions, their widespread adoption is impeded by these gaps in infrastructure and development. The absence of comprehensive policies and incentives to address these disparities means that the benefits of green technologies are not realized uniformly across different regions.
5. Addressing these gaps in current literature, future research could focus on the following areas to enhance green, low-carbon energy practices in sports buildings:
  • Increase application and research on comprehensive, interdisciplinary approaches in low-carbon design practices in sports buildings. This includes integrating various green technologies, such as advanced energy systems, sustainable building materials, and smart building management systems, to enhance overall sustainability.
  • Expand practical research on life-cycle assessments of sports building projects. Comprehensive life-cycle assessments can provide deeper insights into the impacts and benefits of different green, low-carbon energy practices over the entire operational period, helping to minimize energy consumption and environmental impact. Research should focus on improving the utilization rates of these facilities and exploring their potential for various uses throughout their lifespan.
  • Enhance the prioritization of future research on integrating diverse proposed methods from specialized academic studies to improve simulation accuracy and optimize energy efficiency in sports buildings. This approach will improve the reliability of energy efficiency assessments in sports buildings.
  • Advanced modeling and simulation technologies, such as CFD and IoT, should be evaluated for their capabilities and efficiency to provide valuable insights into the interactions. For example, explore the potential of innovative technologies and the Internet of Things (IoT) for real-time monitoring and optimization of energy use and environmental conditions in sports buildings within intelligent cities. The adoption of IoT and other smart technologies can facilitate more responsive and efficient building management, contributing to greater energy savings and improved indoor environments.
  • The government sector should actively boost green finance by promoting the use of green technologies throughout the development phase. To ensure the effective utilization of funds, it is essential to enhance the green finance monitoring system, which will supervise enterprises’ investments in innovative green technologies.
  • Furthermore, there is a critical need to strengthen policy frameworks and regulatory standards to support the adoption and implementation of these integrated practices. Such policies could provide incentives for adopting comprehensive sustainability measures and ensure compliance with environmental standards.
More effective and sustainable solutions for green, low-carbon energy practices in sports buildings can be developed by addressing these research areas, promoting a greener and more energy-efficient built environment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.Q. and L.Y.; methodology, F.Q., Z.S. and L.Y.; software, F.Q., Z.S. and L.Y; formal analysis, F.Q. and L.Y.; investigation, F.Q., Z.S. and L.Y.; resources, F.Q. and L.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, F.Q., Z.S. and L.Y.; writing—review and editing, F.Q. and L.Y.; visualization, F.Q. and L.Y.; project administration, F.Q. and L.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. The article screening flowchart.
Figure 1. The article screening flowchart.
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Figure 2. Trend of the number of papers over the years.
Figure 2. Trend of the number of papers over the years.
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Figure 3. Categories and proportions of papers after screening.
Figure 3. Categories and proportions of papers after screening.
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Figure 4. Sustainable considerations in sports architecture.
Figure 4. Sustainable considerations in sports architecture.
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Figure 5. Air quality enhancement framework.
Figure 5. Air quality enhancement framework.
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Figure 6. Three ventilation strategies in sports architecture: (a) wind-driven ventilation; (b) buoyancy-driven ventilation; and (c) mixed-mode ventilation.
Figure 6. Three ventilation strategies in sports architecture: (a) wind-driven ventilation; (b) buoyancy-driven ventilation; and (c) mixed-mode ventilation.
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Figure 7. Key influencing factors of thermal environment in sports architecture.
Figure 7. Key influencing factors of thermal environment in sports architecture.
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Table 1. Statistical analysis of literature on air quality.
Table 1. Statistical analysis of literature on air quality.
SourceYearResearch FocusMethodology
Guo et al. [40]2004Indoor PollutantsField Sampling; Laboratory Analysis
Ao, C.H. and Lee, S.C. [41]2005Indoor PollutantsEnvironmental Chamber Experiment
Stathopoulou et al. [42]2008Impact of VentilationOn-site Measurement; Data Analysis
Bralewska et al. [43]2022Impact of VentilationOn-site Measurement
Junker et al. [44]2000Air Purification TechnologiesOn-site Measurement
Li et al. [45]2022Air Purification TechnologiesOn-site Measurement; Questionnaire Survey
Table 2. Statistical analysis of literature on ventilation.
Table 2. Statistical analysis of literature on ventilation.
SourceYearResearch FocusMethodology
Chow et al. [46]2002Ventilation Strategies EvaluationComputational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Van Hooff T. and Blocken, B [47]2010Energy Consumption of Buoyancy-driven Ventilation CFD
Van Hooff T. and Blocken B. [48] 2013Impact of Wind-Driven Ventilation
on Air Quality/Thermal Comfort		Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD); On-site Measurement
Cheng et al. [49]2016Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
through Urban Configuration		CFD; On-site Measurement
Palmowska A. and Lipska B. [50]2016Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
of Ice Rinks		CFD; On-site Measurement
Limane et al. [51]2017Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
of Indoor Swimming Pools		CFD; On-site Measurement
Panaras et al. [52]2018Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
of Indoor Swimming Pools		CFD; On-site Measurement
Ciuman P. and Lipska B. [53]2018Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
of Indoor Swimming Pools		CFD; On-site Measurement
Lin et al. [54]2021Indoor Ventilation Evaluation
of Indoor Swimming Pools		CFD; On-site Measurement
Guo et al. [55]2022HVAC System Optimization
of Gymnasium		CFD
Pouranian F. and Akbari H. [56]2023Indoor Ventilation Evaluation of Indoor Swimming PoolsCFD; On-site Measurement
Table 3. Statistical analysis of literature on thermal environment.
Table 3. Statistical analysis of literature on thermal environment.
SourceYearResearch FocusMethodology
Nishioka et al. [57]2000Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Huang et al. [58]2007Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Stamou et al. [59]2008Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		CFD
He J. and Hoyano A. [60]2009Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement; Numerical Simulation
Martins et al. [61]2014Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Suo et al. [62]2015Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-Site Measurement; Dynamic Simulation
Ghani et al. [63]2017Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Hu et al. [64]2018Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Limane et al. [51]2018Thermal Comfort:
Design Optimization Study		CFD; Experimental Validation
Ciuman P. and Lipska B. [53]2018Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation;
Energy Consumption		CFD; Experimental Validation
Lee et al. [65]2019Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Ghani et al. [66]2021Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		Multi-Parameter Assessment; Questionnaire Survey; CFD
Zhang et al. [67]2022Thermal Comfort:
Measurement and Evaluation		CFD
Gao et al. [68]2023Thermal Comfort:
Design Optimization Study		On-Site Experiment; Questionnaire Survey; Physiological Measurement
Wang et al. [69]2023Thermal Comfort:
Design Optimization Study		Hybrid Machine Learning Model; Multi-Objective Optimization Method
Bellache et al. [70]2005Heat Transfer:
Design Optimization Study		CFD
Rajagopalan P. and Luther M.B. [71]2013Heat Transfer:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement
Palmowska A. and Lipska B. [72]2018Heat Transfer:
Measurement and Evaluation		CFD; Experimental Validation
Wang et al. [73]2019Heat Transfer:
Measurement and Evaluation		Experimental Model; CFD
Losi et al. [74]2021Heat Transfer:
Measurement and Evaluation		CFD
Liu et al. [75]2023Heat Transfer:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement; CFD
Omri M. and Galanis N. [76]2010Heat Transfer:
Temperature Distribution		CFD
Lv et al. [77]2023Heat Transfer:
Temperature Distribution		On-site Measurement; CFD
Lin et al. [78]2023Heat Transfer:
Thermal Stratification		On-site Measurement
Yang et al. [79]2020Heat Transfer:
Design Optimization Study		Experimental Model; CFD
Omri et al. [80]2016Heat Transfer:
Design Optimization Study		CFD; Transient Analysis
Szucs et al. [81]2009Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment:
Measurement and Evaluation		Wind Tunnel Experiment
Huang et al. [82]2019Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment:
Measurement and Evaluation		On-site Measurement; Data Analysis
Lam J.C. and Chan A.L. [83]2001Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment		CFD; BLAST Energy Simulation
Lin J. T. and Chuah Y. K. [84]2010Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment		On-site Measurement; CFD
Yuce et al. [85]2014Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment		Artificial Neural Network Model (ANN)
Liu et al. [86]2020Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment		Establish Theoretical Model
Sobhi et al. [87]2022Energy Consumption
through Thermal Environment		CFD; Field Validation
Table 4. Statistical analysis of literature on energy.
Table 4. Statistical analysis of literature on energy.
SourceYearResearch FocusMethodology
Garcia-Hansen et al. [91]2002Evaluation on
Passive Solar Strategies		Simulation Experiment; On-Site Measurement
Cunio et al. [92]2012Energy Efficiency and Energy-Saving TechnologiesExperimental Validation; Theoretical Models
Fraga et al. [93]2018Consideration on Adopting Photovoltaic SystemsField Experiment; Data Collection; Environmental Factors Assessment
Ratajczak K. and Szczechowiak E. [94]2020Strategies on Integrating Energy SystemSystem Modeling; Experimental Validation; Simulation Analysis
Yue et al. [95]2021Energy Efficiency and Energy-Saving TechnologiesMulti-Objective Optimization and Decision Making; Metamodel Training and Validation et al.
Li et al. [96]2022Evaluation on Integrating Energy SystemSystem Modeling and Simulation; Performance Metrics Evaluation
Table 5. Statistical analysis of literature on others.
Table 5. Statistical analysis of literature on others.
SourceYearResearch FocusMethodology
Hu et al. [99]2017Green Building Materials and StructuresExperimental Research; Numerical Simulation
Mangkuto et al. [100]2018Lighting and Visual ComfortOn-Site Measurement; Lighting Simulation
Nižetić et al. [102]2019Integrated Green Technology ApplicationsData Collection
Al-Hamrani et al. [97]2021Circular Economy and Sustainable DesignDiverse Research Methods including Case Studies and Life Cycle Assessment
Murat Kucukvar et al. [98]2021Circular Economy and Sustainable DesignDiverse Research Methods including Case Studies and Life Cycle Assessment
Oke et al. [103]2021Integrated Green Technology ApplicationsQuestionnaire Survey
Liu et al. [101]2023Integrated Green Technology ApplicationsData Collection
Colmenares-Quintero et al. [104]2024Integrated Green Technology ApplicationsConceptual Design; Environmental Factors Assessment; Numerical Simulation
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Qian, F.; Shi, Z.; Yang, L. A Review of Green, Low-Carbon, and Energy-Efficient Research in Sports Buildings. Energies 2024, 17, 4020. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164020

AMA Style

Qian F, Shi Z, Yang L. A Review of Green, Low-Carbon, and Energy-Efficient Research in Sports Buildings. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4020. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164020

Chicago/Turabian Style

Qian, Feng, Zedao Shi, and Li Yang. 2024. "A Review of Green, Low-Carbon, and Energy-Efficient Research in Sports Buildings" Energies 17, no. 16: 4020. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164020

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