Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Brake Wear Particulate Matter Emissions
2.1. Brake Wear Particulate Composition
2.2. Brake Wear Particulate Formation Mechanisms
2.3. Brake Particulate Sampling Methodologies
2.4. Brake Wear Particulate Matter Emission Factors
3. Tire PM Emissions
3.1. Tire Wear Particulate Composition and Road Contribution
3.2. Tire Wear Particulate Formation Mechanisms
3.3. Tire Wear Particulate Sampling Methodologies
3.4. Tire Wear Particulate Matter Emission Factors
4. Resuspended Road Dust PM Emissions
4.1. Measurement Methodologies for Resuspended PM
4.2. Resuspended Road Dust Particulate Matter Emission Factors
Reference | Environment/Sampling System | Measurement Method | Results |
---|---|---|---|
Alves et al., 2020 [78] | Northern Portugal city Direct sampling and resuspension of PM10 | Empirical correlation by Amato et al., 2011 [79] | Asphalt roads: 41.2 mg/km_veh Roads paved with cobblestones: 340 mg/km_veh |
Amato et al., 2010 [73] | Barcelona 3 mobile labs | Linear regression between increases in traffic, PM10 and NOx at two different sites | 97 mg/km_veh |
Padoan et al., 2018 [80] | Turin, Barcelona Direct sampling and resuspension of PM10 | Empirical correlation by Amato et al., 2011 [79] | Turin: 27 mg/km_veh Barcelona: 20 mg/km_veh |
Mathissen et al., 2012 [81] | Germany Monitoring with instrumented vehicle and trailer | Measured concentration multiplied by the section and the vehicle speed and divided by the distance | 20–60 mg/km |
Zhang et al., 2020 [82] | Cina Measurements in urban tunnels | Source apportionment via mass balance | 33.8 mg/km_veh |
Alshetty et Nagendra, 2022 [83] | India Continuous sampling of PM10 and PM25 Road dust sampling | USEPA | PM2.5: 23–556 mg/km_veh PM10: 95–2299 mg/km_veh |
Rienda et al., 2023 [84] | Portugal Direct sampling and resuspension of PM10 | Empirical correlation by Amato et al., 2011 [79] | 18.9–210.8 mg/km_veh |
5. Conclusions
- Brake wear particle emissions have been found to be strongly influenced by the type of brake pad and operating conditions, such as brake test type and vehicle weight, as well as type of test and the sampling system;
- Tire wear particle Emission factors are often correlated with the mass consumption. However, the mass loss of a tire does not precisely correspond to the emission into the atmosphere. Resuspended particles affect on-road TWP measurements, while laboratory tests are limited by their inability to fully replicate tire wear similar to that of real-world road conditions;
- Emission factors for resuspended road dust particulate matter are less reliant on measurement methodologies but are strongly influenced by meteorological conditions, traffic patterns, road maintenance, and cleaning practices.
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
3h-LACT | Three Hours-Los Angeles City Traffic |
BEV | Battery Electric Vehicles |
BR | Butadiene Rubber |
Cr | Rolling Resistance Coefficient |
EU | European Union |
FTP | Federal Test Procedure |
GTR24 | Global Technical Regulation |
NEDC | New European Driving Cycle |
NHTSA | National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |
NR | Natural Rubber |
PMxx | Particulate Matter xx microns |
PM | Particle Matter |
PN | Particle Number |
SBR | Styrene-Butadiene Rubber |
sL | Silt Loading |
SUV | Sport Utility Vehicles |
TRWP | Tire and Road Wear Particles |
TWP | Tire Wear Particles |
US-EPA | US Environmental Protection Agency |
UTQGS | Uniform Tire Quality Grading Standards |
WHO | World Health Organization |
WLTP | Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedure |
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---|---|---|
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Mathissen et al., 2019 [23] | Chassis dyno Semi-closed system | PN = 7 × 109 pt/km (EEPS w/o catalytic stripper); PN = 3 × 109 pt/km (CPC with catalytic stripper) |
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Seo et al., 2019 [29] | Sealed experimental chamber for brake dyno closed system | 3.0 × 107–5.0 × 107 pt/cm3 (range 6 nm–10 μm) |
Perricone et al., 2019 [8] | Sealed experimental chamber for brake dyno | PN = 1010 pt/block (cold) PN = 108 pt/block (warm) |
Lyu et al., 2020 [30] | pin-on-disc system closed system | 0.75 mg/m3 (Cu-full); 0.9–1.2 mg/m3 (Cu-free) |
Kim et al., 2021 [31] | Sealed experimental chamber for brake dyno closed system | 4.37–14.41 mg/kg/vehicle |
Oroumiyeh et al., 2021 [25] | On road tests open system | Heaviest vehicle: 950–8420 μg/m3 per PM10 520–4280 μg/m3 per PM2.5 Lightest vehicle: 430–3890 μg/m3 per PM10 250–2440 μg/m3 per PM2.5 |
Zhang et al., 2024 [32] | Sealed experimental chamber for brake dyno On-road acquisition of the 6-wheel forces, GPS, accelerometer and brake temperature | PM10: 61–72% in mass loss 2.66 mg/km PM2.5 11.65 mg/km PM10 |
Reference | Environment/Sampling System | Results |
---|---|---|
Charbouillot et al., 2023 [44] | Track Isokinetic sampling behind the driving wheel with 3 vertically aligned nozzles | PM10: 1.1–4.1% (on mass loss) PM2.5: 0.1–0.2% (on mass loss) |
Zhang et al., 2024 [32] | On-road acquisition of the 6 wheel forces, laboratory reproduction with a wheel dynamometer Constant volume sampling at the tire-ring contact point. System enclosed in a semi-open chamber | 0.21 mg/km PM2.5 1.27 mg/km PM10 |
Grigoratos et al., 2018 [60] | Laboratory tests Circular road simulator, cooled (max speed 70 km/h) | Mass losses between 55 and 214 mg/km_veh PM10 20–50 microg/m3 (50% PM2.5) |
Guo et al., 2023 [35] | On-road acquisition of speed and wheel forces, laboratory reproduction with a wheel dynamometer | Silicon: PM2.5 7%w Zn: PM2.5 0.7%w The main component is organic carbon, followed by inorganic elements and water-soluble ions. Pyrene is the dominant polycyclic aromatic |
Yan et al., 2021 [47] | Laboratory tests. Wheel dyno. System enclosed in a flow-controlled chamber | 0:040–0.1040 mg/km |
Tonegawa, Sasaki, 2021 [51] | On-road tests | Tire wear: 3.7 mg/km-veh (of which 3–4%w consists of PM10 and PM2.5) PM10: 0.4–1.7 mg/km |
Park et al., 2018 [45] | Laboratory tests. Wheel dyno. System enclosed in a flow-controlled chamber | PM10: 0.055–0.222 mg/km PM2.5: 0.029–0.051 mg/km |
Kim et al., 2018 [52] | Laboratory tests. Wheel dyno. System enclosed in a flow-controlled chamber | PM10: 0.0002–0.066 mg/km PM2.5: 0.0001–0.036 mg/km |
Pirjola et al., 2009 [50] | On-road tests. Isokinetic sampling at constant volume | PM10: 0.060–5.3 mg/m3 |
Woo et al., 2022 [46] | Laboratory tests. Wheel dyno; On-road tests. Isokinetic sampling at constant volume | 0.91–1.34 mg/vkm PM10 0.1–0.38 mg/vkm PM2.5 3.12–3.95 × 1013 pt/vkm 45–95 mg/km a 110 km/h on track (resuspended particulates included) 2–4% of that is attributable to tires (7–16 µg/m3 PM10 1.4–2.8 µg/m3 PM2.5) |
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Costagliola, M.A.; Marchitto, L.; Giuzio, R.; Casadei, S.; Rossi, T.; Lixi, S.; Faedo, D. Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport Vehicles. Energies 2024, 17, 4079. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164079
Costagliola MA, Marchitto L, Giuzio R, Casadei S, Rossi T, Lixi S, Faedo D. Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport Vehicles. Energies. 2024; 17(16):4079. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164079
Chicago/Turabian StyleCostagliola, Maria Antonietta, Luca Marchitto, Rocco Giuzio, Simone Casadei, Tommaso Rossi, Simone Lixi, and Davide Faedo. 2024. "Non-Exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport Vehicles" Energies 17, no. 16: 4079. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17164079