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Article

Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and Stability of Power Grids—Challenges, Technologies, and Adaptation Strategies

by
Konrad Henryk Bachanek
1,*,
Wojciech Drożdż
1 and
Maciej Kolon
2
1
Research Center for Management of Energy Sector, Institute of Management, University of Szczecin, Cukrowa Street 8, 71-004 Szczecin, Poland
2
Independent Researcher, 71-004 Szczecin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Energies 2025, 18(8), 2036; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082036
Submission received: 9 January 2025 / Revised: 17 March 2025 / Accepted: 11 April 2025 / Published: 16 April 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Opportunities for Energy Efficiency in Smart Cities)
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Abstract

:
The development of renewable energy sources (RESs) is a key element of the energy policy in Poland and the European Union. The transition to green energy aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance energy security, and decrease dependence on fossil fuels. In Poland, the RES sector, particularly photovoltaics and wind energy, is growing, which is changing the operation of energy generation. However, the increasing share of RESs in the energy mix presents challenges for the stability of the national power grid. This study focuses on renewable energy sources in Poland because the development of RESs is crucial for the country’s energy transition. Poland is striving to achieve its climate goals and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, and increasing the share of RESs in the national energy mix is a key element of energy policy. The transition to green energy aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, enhance energy security, and support sustainable development in Poland. (1) The aim of this article was to analyze the impact of RES development on power grids in Poland, identify key issues, and review adaptation strategies. (2) Methods such as a literature review and statistical data analysis were used to build scenarios. (3) In Poland, the RES sector is being developed through the application of both national and European policies. The main sources of renewable energy are wind energy and photovoltaics. (4) The introduction of technologies such as energy storage systems, smart grids, and advanced management strategies is a key response to the challenges posed by the development of renewable energy in Poland, particularly in relation to the stability of the power grid.

1. Introduction

The development of renewable energy sources (RESs) plays a key role in the transformation of the global energy system towards a more sustainable future. In the face of growing concerns about environmental degradation, climate change, and the depletion of fossil fuel resources, the need to transition to clean, renewable energy sources is becoming a global priority. Technologies such as solar, wind, geothermal, hydro, and biomass are gaining importance, not only due to their ecological benefits but also because of their economic and social advantages [1]. The adoption of renewable energy sources in Poland is important for several reasons. The transition to RESs is economically beneficial because it reduces dependence on the import of fossil fuels, improves energy efficiency, and creates new industries and jobs. The industrial and manufacturing sectors require a stable and sustainable energy source. As the demand for clean energy increases, adopting RESs ensures energy security and supports decarbonization goals in key industries.
In the context of global climate commitments, the development of RESs in Poland is aligned with national efforts to enhance energy independence and promote sustainable development. As a member of the European Union, Poland is obligated to implement the EU’s climate and energy policies, which include increasing the share of RESs to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 [2]. Over the past two decades, despite structural challenges and dependence on fossil fuels, the RES sector in Poland has experienced dynamic growth driven by both national and European policies.
The location of RESs for solar and wind energy in Poland is diverse, and its distribution depends on climatic and geographical conditions. Figure 1 presents the energy map of Poland for wind and solar energy. In the figure, green shows the location of wind farms and yellow shows the location of solar farms.
Solar energy potential is highest in the southern and central parts of the country, where there is more sunlight. In these regions, especially in the mountainous and eastern areas, solar radiation is particularly intense, making them the most suitable for solar energy utilization. Areas marked on the map in yellow indicate locations with the highest solar energy potential, with noticeably higher solar irradiance, especially during the summer months. Wind energy potential is more favorable in the northern part of Poland and along the Baltic Sea coast, where average wind speeds are higher. These regions, marked on the map in green, are the most promising locations for the development of wind farms. Particularly, the coastal areas and the northwestern part of the country have the best conditions for generating wind energy due to frequent and strong winds.
The distribution of RESs is crucial when planning energy infrastructure, as it allows for the optimal use of natural resources in Poland. The use of solar and wind energy will play a significant role in the country’s sustainable energy transition.
Over the past two decades, there has been a significant increase in investment in the renewable energy sector [4,5], which has led to rapid technological development, reduced production costs, and increased energy efficiency. As a result, renewable energy has become not only a viable alternative to conventional energy sources but also a key element of the political strategies of many countries [6], which aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and enhance energy security [7,8]. In light of the previous discussion, there is a need to analyze technical factors through a review. For this reason, this paper presents a review of renewable energy sources in Poland.
Nevertheless, the development of renewable energy sources faces numerous challenges [9,10,11]. These include issues related to energy storage [12], the variability of energy supply from certain sources (such as wind and solar energy) [13], as well as the need to modernize energy infrastructure. It is also crucial that the energy transformation process is fair and takes into account socioeconomic effects, such as changes in employment within traditional fuel sectors and ensuring access to energy for all [14].
The comprehensive review of renewable energy development presented in this article is important because it allows for the collection and organization of the latest knowledge on trends, technologies, and challenges in this field. Such a review facilitates understanding of the current state of renewable energy research and implementation, enabling both the assessment of achievements to date and the identification of areas where significant barriers still exist [15,16]. This helps to identify key patterns and relationships, which is particularly challenging when information is scattered across numerous sources.
The comprehensive analysis enables the identification of key issues and areas requiring further research or improvement, including technological limitations, costs, efficiency, and challenges related to the integration of renewable energy sources into the electricity grid. Based on the analysis of past achievements and failures, the review can outline future directions for research and development, thereby supporting the planning of activities and investments in innovative technologies by researchers and decision-makers.
By providing up-to-date, reliable information, this comprehensive review also offers valuable support for decision-making on energy policies, investments, and development strategies, enabling governments, organizations, and companies to formulate more effective action plans. The review serves an educational function, raising awareness of the importance and potential of renewable energy in the context of combating climate change and improving energy security. This can inspire new initiatives and promote a sustainable approach to energy management.
The aim of this article was to analyze the impact of the growing share of RESs on the stability of the Polish power system. The article seeks to identify the main technical and organizational challenges related to the integration of renewable sources, such as the instability of RESs’ energy supply due to their dependence on weather conditions, and to assess the available technologies and strategies that can support the stabilization of the power grid. The study also includes a review of supporting technologies, such as energy storage systems, demand management solutions, and smart grids, which enable a flexible response to variable RES energy supplies. The article attempts to formulate adaptation strategies and recommendations for the Polish power sector to support the sustainable development of RESs while maintaining the security and stability of electricity supply.

2. Materials and Methods

The analyzed thematic area includes a comprehensive approach to the issue of RES development in Poland and the stability of national energy networks. The study employed two main research methods: a thorough literature review and quantitative data analysis supported by development scenarios. The aim of these activities was to understand the current state of knowledge, identify challenges, and assess the effectiveness of applied technologies and adaptation strategies in the context of integrating RESs with the national energy grid. Table 1 presents the key stages of the conducted research.
  • Stage 1
The first method used in this work was a systematic review of scientific literature, which included an analysis of publications in the fields of energy, renewable energy technologies, climate policy, and energy infrastructure management. The review also incorporated industry reports, policy documents, and regulations on RES and grid stability. The goal of this method was to collect and synthesize current information on the challenges, technologies, and adaptation strategies employed in Poland concerning the increasing share of RESs in the national energy mix. The literature review also helped identify key barriers and needs in the area of technologies stabilizing energy networks and mechanisms supporting the integration of renewable energy sources.
  • Stage 2
The second method used in this study was the analysis of quantitative data, which included a detailed assessment of energy production from renewable sources in Poland, their impact on the structure of the national energy mix, and the stability of energy networks. This analysis used data from government agencies such as the Ministry of Climate and Environment and the Polish Power Grid, as well as operational data provided by national energy network operators. This approach enabled the identification of trends in energy production, its variability, and the impact on network stability, including occurrences of power outages, voltage fluctuations, or other threats to the continuity of power supply. The study also included an analysis of renewable energy development scenarios, considering possible changes in energy policy, the development of energy storage technologies, and the impact of new legal regulations on the future of the renewable energy sector.
  • Stage 3
The use of development scenarios was an integral part of the methodology, allowing for the forecasting of future trends and the identification of potential challenges related to the further integration of RESs into the national energy grid. These scenarios take into account changing political, technological, and economic conditions, such as the pace of development of new RES technologies, progress in energy storage, and the adaptation of energy infrastructure to evolving market conditions. These scenarios provide a starting point for assessing the effectiveness of various adaptation strategies in ensuring the stability of energy networks in the face of the growing share of RESs.
  • Stage 4
The study focused on three key technologies: energy storage systems, smart grids, and demand-side management strategies, which provide solutions to the challenges associated with the development of RESs in Poland. The research also took into account technologies that can support the stability of the power grid in the face of the growing share of RESs. Specifically, the study concentrated on the development of energy storage systems, such as lithium-ion batteries, pumped-storage power plants, and hydrogen technologies. Furthermore, the development of smart grids, which enable dynamic energy flow management and network operation optimization, is discussed. Additionally, demand-side management technologies, such as demand response programs and energy consumption deferral mechanisms, are considered as responses to the instability of energy production from RESs.
The approach combining a literature review, quantitative data analysis, and forecasting of development scenarios provides a comprehensive methodology that enables a thorough assessment of current and future challenges related to the development of RESs and the stability of energy networks in Poland.

3. Results

3.1. Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland

The main sources of renewable energy are wind power and photovoltaics. Photovoltaics currently dominate the structure of installed RES capacity. As of May 2024, their installed capacity reached 18.1 GW, accounting for just over 60% of all renewable energy capacity. Wind power is in second place, with an installed capacity of approximately 9.5 GW, or nearly 32% of RES capacity [17]. Poland has become one of the leaders in photovoltaics in Central and Eastern Europe, due to the increasing availability of technology and state support through programs such as Mój Prąd and Czyste Powietrze [18].
The development of RESs is also aligned with the EU’s climate policy, which aims to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 [19]. As a member of the EU, Poland has committed to increasing the share of RESs in its energy mix [20], which requires significant investments in infrastructure and technologies. Although RESs currently account for about a quarter of domestic electricity production, forecasts indicate that their share will steadily increase in the coming decades. A comparison of the structure of electricity production in Poland from 2021 to 2023 [GWh] is presented in Figure 2.
The structure of electricity production in 2023 changed slightly compared to the previous year. The vast majority of generation was still based on conventional fuels, namely hard coal and brown coal. However, a noticeable change was the increase in the share of generation from renewable sources. In wind power, the share of electricity production increased from 10% to 13%, and in other renewable sources, it rose from 5% to 8%. As noted by some authors [22], electricity generation in residential areas may be fully covered by renewable energy in the future.
It is worth noting other renewable sources, which include distributed energy. The proportion of distributed energy is derived from the growing role of prosumers and decentralized renewable energy installations. This shift reflects a significant increase in the number of individuals and companies who generate their own electricity, primarily through photovoltaic systems. By the end of 2023, prosumers were responsible for contributing approximately 80% of the total photovoltaic production to the national grid. This trend highlights the decentralization of energy production, reducing reliance on centralized power plants and contributing to the overall increase in renewable energy share. The energy produced by prosumers plays a crucial role in stabilizing the grid and balancing electricity supply, making distributed energy an essential component of Poland’s energy transformation. Figure 3 illustrates the monthly production of electrical energy from three renewable energy sources—hydro energy, wind energy, and solar photovoltaic energy—over the period from 2019 to 2023. The x-axis represents the months of the year, while the y-axis displays energy production in gigawatt hours (GWh).
Hydro energy production shows significant fluctuations, with notable peaks occurring during certain months each year, suggesting a seasonal variation influenced by rainfall and water levels in hydroelectric plants. Wind energy production exhibits irregular fluctuations, with spikes in output corresponding to periods of high wind activity. Over time, particularly from 2022, wind energy production has gradually increased. Solar photovoltaic energy production demonstrates a highly seasonal pattern, with very low output in winter months and a significant rise during summer months due to sunlight availability. Furthermore, solar energy shows a clear upward trend, especially from 2022 onwards, indicating substantial growth in photovoltaic capacity.
From 2019 to 2023, Poland saw a significant increase in the total installed capacity of RESs. The main drivers of this growth were favorable legal regulations, support programs, and increasing environmental awareness. During this period, the largest increase was recorded in photovoltaics (PV), which have become the dominant segment of RESs, particularly in the prosumer sector. By the end of 2023, the installed capacity in RESs exceeded 24 GW, with about half coming from photovoltaics. Wind farms ranked second; the development of this sector had been limited by the so-called 10H rule, but since 2022, these regulations have been gradually relaxed, reviving investments in wind power [23,24]. Other sources, such as biogas and hydropower plants, had a smaller share, though they also recorded stable growth. The total installed capacity of RES installations in Poland from 2019 to 2023 is presented in Figure 4.
The rapid development of distributed energy has been driven, among other factors, by prosumers—individuals or companies that have photovoltaic installations to meet their own electricity demand [25]. They are increasingly playing an important role in balancing electricity supply. In 2023, the amount of energy they contributed to the grid accounted for about 80% of the total PV production in the country [26]. The number of prosumers in Poland from 2018 to 2023 is presented in Figure 5.
As shown in Figure 5, Poland has experienced dynamic growth in the number of prosumers in recent years, particularly in the photovoltaic sector. Factors contributing to the increase in the number of prosumers include the following:
  • Financial support programs—Government programs such as Mój Prąd, Czyste Powietrze, and tax relief have made the purchase and installation of panels more affordable for households.
  • Decreasing technology costs—The prices of PV installations have significantly decreased year by year, making it more affordable for more people to invest in RESs. Additionally, the technology is becoming increasingly efficient.
  • Changes in regulations—Legislative changes enabling the use of the net-metering system (energy balancing) until 2022 allowed prosumers to transfer surplus energy to the grid and later retrieve it without additional fees. Although a net-billing system was introduced in 2022, where prosumers settle according to market energy prices, the number of installations continues to grow.
  • Rising energy prices—The sharp increase in electricity prices on the market has encouraged households to seek alternative power sources, making investments in photovoltaic panels more profitable.
By the end of 2023, the number of prosumers in Poland exceeded 1.3 million, representing a several-fold increase compared to previous years. Most of these prosumers are households, but the number of small and medium-sized businesses and farmers installing their own renewable energy systems is also growing. Prosumerism in Poland is driving the development of distributed energy, reducing the load on central energy sources, and supporting the country’s energy transformation, contributing to the increase in the share of renewable energy in the energy mix.
The energy transition and the increase in the number of prosumers in Poland are important elements in the fight against climate change, contributing to the reduction of carbon emissions and achieving other positive environmental effects. The growing share of RESs, particularly photovoltaics and wind energy, leads to a decreased reliance on fossil fuels, which are the primary source of greenhouse gas emissions. According to data, in 2023, the installed capacity of photovoltaics in Poland reached 18.1 GW, accounting for more than 60% of the total RES capacity, while wind energy ranked second with a capacity of 9.5 GW. The increasing share of these sources in the energy mix directly contributes to the reduction of CO2 emissions. The rise in the number of prosumers, who generate their own energy using photovoltaic panels, supports the decentralization of energy production, reducing the load on central energy sources. In 2023, prosumers were responsible for approximately 80% of the total photovoltaic energy production in Poland. Their role is crucial in stabilizing the energy grid, as the energy produced by prosumers is used to balance energy demand and reduces the need to rely on traditional, more carbon-intensive energy sources. The dynamic development of RESs, including wind and solar energy, presents a challenge for the stability of the energy grid, as energy production from these sources is unstable and weather-dependent. The development of energy storage technologies allows for the storage of surplus energy produced during high-production periods (e.g., sunny days or periods of strong wind) and its return to the grid when production is lower. According to data, the energy storage capacity in Poland in 2023 was minimal compared to the installed RES capacity. However, the development of energy storage systems and smart grids will enable better integration of variable energy sources with the grid, increasing its stability and allowing for more efficient management of energy demand and supply. Moreover, the reduction of CO2 emissions and the increasing number of prosumers contribute to enhanced energy efficiency, which has a positive impact on the economy. Support programs, such as Mój Prąd and Czyste Powietrze, reduce the cost of photovoltaic installations, promoting their widespread adoption in Poland. Additionally, the decrease in photovoltaic technology costs and the improvement in installation efficiency make investments in RESs increasingly cost-effective.
One of the main challenges faced by the Polish energy sector in the context of the development of renewable energy sources is the stability of the power grid. This is due to the nature of renewable energy sources, particularly photovoltaics and wind energy, which are characterized by unstable and variable production patterns.

3.2. Challenges Related to Energy Grid Stability and Technologies Supporting Grid Stability

Energy production from sources such as solar and wind depends on factors like weather conditions, which can lead to sudden fluctuations in energy supply. This variability creates challenges in maintaining a balance between energy supply and demand, which is crucial for the stable operation of the power system. Traditional power plants, such as coal-based ones, operate continuously and have limited flexibility in quickly adjusting to sudden changes in the demand for or supply of renewable energy. This leads to difficulties in balancing the system, particularly during sudden increases or decreases in renewable energy generation.
The report from Polskie Sieci Elektroenergetyczne (PSE) highlights the challenges related to balancing power in the energy system due to the dynamically growing installed capacity of RESs [27]. The increase in the share of variable energy sources necessitates the implementation of a flexible approach to power system management. Particular attention should be given to the development of transmission infrastructure and the adoption of technologies enabling energy storage.
Energy production from renewable sources depends not only on atmospheric conditions but also on various technological, geographical, and infrastructural factors. In the case of solar energy, the efficiency of the photovoltaic panels used is crucial, including the ability of semiconductor materials to convert solar radiation into electrical energy, as well as their resistance to degradation and changing environmental conditions [28]. Additionally, energy production from photovoltaics depends on the angle of inclination and orientation of the panels, which affects the amount of absorbed radiation, as well as the shading factor resulting from local development and terrain features [29,30]. For wind energy, the location of turbines is key, with factors such as height above sea level and surrounding topography significantly influencing wind speed and direction [31,32]. The efficiency of turbines also depends on their design, including the size of the blades and the height of the tower, as well as the technological advancements in control systems, which optimize the turbine’s positioning relative to wind direction and maximize energy production.
An additional factor influencing energy production from renewable sources is the condition of the transmission infrastructure and the capacity of energy storage systems, which enable effective management of production variability and its adjustment to current demand.
The growing number of decentralized renewable energy installations [33], such as prosumer photovoltaic systems, means that energy is fed into the grid at multiple levels and locations. Uncontrolled energy flows can lead to grid overloads, especially at the local level, which in turn requires costly upgrades to transmission and distribution infrastructure. According to Tan, Xudong, and Liang [34], challenges related to the reliability of the power system include natural disasters, grid attacks, and supply risks.
To ensure the stability of energy networks with the growing share of renewable energy sources, it is crucial to introduce modern technologies that enable flexible management of energy demand and supply. Table 2 presents the most important of these technologies.
To conduct a quantitative analysis to determine whether the modern technologies listed in Table 2 of the document can address the aforementioned challenges, it is necessary to focus on assessing several factors, including the stability and scalability of each technology, their current implementation, and their potential impact on energy production and grid integration. Figure 6 presents the energy production from water, wind, and solar sources in selected months in Poland in 2023.
The hydro energy production shows a clear seasonal variation, with the highest output observed in the spring and early summer months (March to May), reaching more than 500 GWh. This production is heavily influenced by rainfall and water levels, which typically peak during these months. However, hydro energy production decreases towards the end of the year, particularly in November, reflecting lower water availability. Wind energy exhibits a similar pattern to hydro, with production increasing in the spring and early summer months, peaking around May and June, and then gradually decreasing towards the fall. The variability of wind speeds throughout the year impacts this trend, which is typical for wind-based energy generation. Solar energy production, on the other hand, shows a significantly different trend. It is minimal during the winter months (January through March) and experiences a steep rise from March to July, with its peak production occurring in the summer months (especially May through August), when sunlight hours are longest. After July, solar production begins to decline, reaching its lowest levels in the winter months again. This analysis highlights the seasonality of renewable energy production in Poland and the varying degrees of stability between different energy sources. Wind and hydro power exhibit more fluctuation based on weather conditions, while solar power is primarily driven by the seasonal variation in sunlight. This seasonal dependency emphasizes the need for energy storage solutions to balance supply and demand throughout the year, particularly for the more variable sources such as wind and solar.
Another important challenge is energy storage. In Poland, several significant energy storage projects are being implemented to enhance the stability and flexibility of the national power system. They include the following:
  • Energy Storage in Żarnowiec—Polska Grupa Energetyczna (PGE) plans to launch one of the largest battery energy storage facilities in Europe in Żarnowiec by the end of September 2026, with a capacity of 900 MWh and a power rating of 263 MW. The storage facility will support the balancing of energy from wind farms and provide flexibility services for the energy system [41].
  • Energy Storage Projects Purchased by EDF Renewables—In December 2024, EDF Renewables finalized the purchase of a second large-scale battery energy storage project in Poland, with a capacity of 120 MW, scheduled to begin construction in 2025 and be operational by early 2028. Earlier, the company had purchased a 50 MW project, expected to be operational in early 2026 [42].
  • Energy Storage Projects by PGE Dystrybucja—PGE Dystrybucja received funding of PLN 43 million for the construction of three energy storage facilities: Warta, Jeziorsko, and Cisna. The projects aim to improve the quality of electricity parameters in the distribution network, particularly in areas with a high concentration of renewable energy sources [43].
  • Energy Storage in Ochotnica Dolna—The Ochotnica Dolna municipality, in cooperation with Elsta and TAURON Dystrybucja, implemented a project for an industrial energy storage system with a power rating of 50 kW and a capacity of 125 kWh. The storage system supports the stabilization of the local electricity network and allows for better use of energy from photovoltaic micro-installations [44].
These projects are a crucial part of Poland’s energy transformation, increasing the share of renewable energy sources and improving the stability of the electricity grid. An important aspect is the energy storage capacity in relation to the renewable energy capacity in Poland for the year 2023 and the projected scenarios for 2030 (lower and upper estimates), as shown in Figure 7.
The figure above compares the energy storage capacity to the renewable energy capacity in Poland for the year 2023 and the projected scenarios for 2030 (lower and upper estimates). The blue bar representing the energy storage capacity in 2023 is very small compared to the green bar, which represents the installed renewable energy capacity. This indicates a significant gap between the renewable energy generation capacity and the capacity for storing energy in Poland. The energy storage capacity in 2023 is minimal, suggesting that Poland currently faces challenges in effectively managing the fluctuations in energy production from renewable sources. In this scenario, the energy storage capacity is projected to increase, but it remains relatively small compared to the growing renewable energy capacity (depicted by the green bar). While the energy storage capacity is expected to rise, it still falls short of matching the capacity of renewable energy production, reflecting the ongoing need for substantial investments in storage solutions. The upper scenario shows a further increase in energy storage capacity, but even here, the storage capacity is significantly smaller than the renewable energy capacity. This highlights the need for continued advancements and investments in energy storage technologies to stabilize the grid as the share of renewable energy increases in the future.
When comparing the situation of the electricity grid in Poland with other countries, especially in terms of integrating RESs and modernizing infrastructure, clear emerge in the approach to grid development and adaptation. Like other EU countries, Poland faces challenges related to the increasing share of renewable energy, particularly wind and solar power, which require modernization and expansion of existing infrastructure. In Germany, which has been investing heavily in renewable energy for years, the electricity grid is more advanced and better suited to manage the variability of energy production from RESs. Germany boasts one of the most developed transmission networks in Europe, allowing for more efficient energy flow management, especially considering the high share of wind and solar power in the country’s energy mix [45]. Denmark, a leader in wind energy usage, has achieved a high level of integration of RESs into the electricity grid through the development of modern stabilizing technologies, such as energy storage and smart grids. The share of wind energy in Denmark’s energy mix is around 50%, placing the country among the top in Europe in terms of utilizing renewable energy sources [46]. In Poland, despite the dynamic development of RESs, the electricity grid still requires modernization to handle the growing instability in renewable energy production. According to a report published by the National Institute for Accreditation and Certification, Poland faces challenges related to the need to modernize its network infrastructure to accommodate a higher share of renewable energy sources [47]. Poland cooperates with neighboring countries by developing cross-border connections, such as with Germany, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania, which allows for better management of energy surpluses and shortages in the region. Projects such as these, including connections with Germany, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania, are crucial for improving the stability of Poland’s electricity grid and better managing energy flows, as indicated in reports concerning the European energy market [48]. Sweden, known for its development of energy storage technologies, may serve as an example for Poland in implementing modern technological solutions that enhance grid stability and energy efficiency [49].
In Poland, several key initiatives related to smart grids have been implemented with the aim of improving the stability of the electricity grid, optimizing energy management, and integrating renewable energy sources. Among them, the following projects stand out:
  • The Smart Grid Project (Tauron)—Tauron Dystrybucja is implementing the Smart Grid project, which involves the deployment of modern network management systems and remote monitoring. The project includes the installation of smart meters, demand management systems, and advanced network automation. This enables quick responses to network failures and issues, significantly improving energy supply stability and allowing for effective management of variable energy sources, such as wind and solar. Smart meters allow for more accurate monitoring and forecasting of energy demand, which supports better resource allocation and faster decision-making in the event of failures or the need to adjust energy production to demand. Additionally, network automation enables quicker localization and resolution of system issues [50]
  • The Smart Grid Project in the Łódź Region (PGE Dystrybucja)—PGE Dystrybucja is carrying out a project that includes the installation of smart meters and advanced network automation. This project is part of a broader energy transformation aimed at improving energy management efficiency and ensuring grid stability in the face of increasing renewable energy sources. The installation of smart meters enables quick fault detection and more accurate energy demand forecasting, allowing for better load management and voltage stabilization. Additionally, remote monitoring allows for faster response to system issues [51].
  • The Flexible Energy Grid Project in the Eastern Region (ENERGA Operator)—This project, carried out by ENERGA Operator, aims to implement intelligent solutions in network management, including automatic switching, energy quality monitoring, and the deployment of distributed energy sources. Automatic switching during emergencies and quick responses to changes in energy demand enable better management of crisis situations and help prevent disruptions in energy supply, improving the stability of the energy grid [52].
These initiatives are crucial in improving the stability of Poland’s electricity grids, allowing for better energy management, integration of renewable energy sources, and quicker responses to system issues.
To address the challenges related to the stability of power grids, Poland needs a comprehensive approach. As shown in Table 2, investments in energy storage technologies, such as lithium-ion batteries or pumped-storage power plants, are essential to allow for the accumulation of surplus energy. Equally important is the development of smart grids, which will enable better monitoring and management of distributed energy production. The comparison presented in Table 3 can help define a smart grid.
Based on the presented differences between the conventional grid and the smart grid, the following conclusions can be drawn:
  • A conventional network is characterized by unidirectional energy flow, meaning that energy is supplied from a single source (e.g., a power plant) to consumers. In a smart grid, bidirectional communication enables two-way energy flow, allowing for the integration of renewable energy sources and increasing the flexibility of the energy system.
  • Traditional conventional networks are dominated by analog systems, which limit their ability to process, monitor, and control. A digital smart grid allows for faster and more accurate data processing, leading to better optimization of network operations.
  • The conventional grid is based on centralized energy generation, involving large power plants and long transmission lines. In contrast, the smart grid supports distributed generation, enabling smaller-scale energy production (e.g., photovoltaic panels, wind turbines), which enhances energy efficiency and independence.
  • Conventional networks typically have a low number of sensors, limiting their ability to monitor and respond quickly to changes in the system. A smart grid uses advanced technologies and a higher number of sensors, allowing for more accurate tracking of network parameters and real-time optimization of its operation.
  • In traditional networks, the most commonly used architecture is radial, which has limitations in the event of a failure at one of its points. The smart grid, however, is based on a ring architecture, providing greater reliability and fault tolerance through multiple communication paths.
  • Conventional networks offer limited work monitoring, making it difficult to detect and respond to irregularities in real time. In a smart grid, advanced technologies enable continuous monitoring and real-time control, improving operational efficiency and network security.
  • Traditional networks are less vulnerable to cyberattacks due to their simpler structure and more closed control systems. In contrast, a smart, highly digitized network with a distributed architecture is more susceptible to cyberattacks, which requires the implementation of advanced security measures and ongoing protection monitoring.
These conclusions indicate that smart grids, despite their numerous advantages in terms of flexibility, efficiency, and advanced monitoring, also present challenges, particularly regarding security and vulnerability to cyberattacks. On the other hand, conventional grids, while simpler, may be less reliable and face greater limitations in terms of optimization and the integration of renewable energy sources.
Based on the considerations made, an innovative solution can be proposed: the development of microgrid systems. Microgrids are local energy networks that can operate autonomously or be connected to the main power grid [57,58]. They provide greater flexibility in energy management in areas where the infrastructure is overloaded, which is particularly important given the dynamically growing number of distributed energy sources, such as prosumer installations. Microgrids enable faster integration of RESs and enhance local network stability, as they can operate independently in the event of a main network failure.
Another idea is to develop predictive systems based on artificial intelligence (AI) that help forecast and manage energy production from renewable sources (e.g., wind and solar) in real time [59]. This technology enhances the ability to dynamically manage supply and demand, reducing the need for power reserves and improving system stability.

3.3. Adaptation Strategies in the Polish Energy System

Adaptation strategies in the Polish energy system aim to adjust the sector to dynamically changing conditions, such as the growing share of RESs, the decreasing role of fossil fuels, the variability of energy supply and demand, as well as new challenges related to decarbonization and energy security. As part of these efforts, Poland is undertaking various initiatives to support the energy transformation in a safe, sustainable, and efficient manner. Therefore, Poland must implement comprehensive adaptation strategies that address both infrastructure modernization and the development of new technologies. These strategies are presented in Table 4.
Poland is planning significant investments in transmission infrastructure as part of its energy transformation, especially in the context of the growing demand for electricity resulting from the integration of RESs and electromobility [63,64]. Investments of approximately PLN 35.9 billion are planned for the period 2023–2032, with this value expected to increase to around PLN 61.8 billion by 2036. The main areas of investment include the construction of new transmission lines and the modernization of existing ones, particularly 400 kV and 220 kV lines. Special attention is being given to the construction of HVDC (high-voltage direct current) connections, with a planned increase of 775 km by 2032, aimed at improving the efficiency of energy transmission and enhancing integration with international energy markets [64,65]. These investments will also support the development of renewable energy, including offshore wind farms and photovoltaic power plants, and will enable the connection of new, stable energy sources, such as nuclear power plants [63,65]. The key objective of these investments is not only to increase the stability and security of the grid but also to adapt the infrastructure to the growing energy demand, which is projected to increase by an average of 1.7% per year [65].
The integration of the Polish energy market with the European power system is a key process for ensuring energy stability in both Poland and the EU. It involves creating unified energy markets and developing interconnections that enable the exchange of energy between countries. The most important activities include the integration of day-ahead markets’ single day-ahead coupling (SDAC) and intraday markets’ single intraday coupling (SIDC). This facilitates access to energy in situations of shortage or surplus, as well as cost optimization, which positively impacts prices for consumers and enhances supply security.
The EU supports the development of infrastructure, including cross-border transmission connections, to enable the integration of renewable energy sources and reduce dependence on conventional energy. Poland is enhancing cooperation with its neighbors, particularly with Germany and the Baltic countries. However, strengthening these connections requires additional investments in infrastructure, such as the installation of phase shifters on the Polish-German border, which will allow for better management of energy flows and prevent uncontrolled power surges. In the long term, the integration of energy markets will provide benefits such as greater network stability, access to cheaper energy, and support for energy transformation, as well as a reduction in CO2 emissions.
The Polish power system is governed by a set of regulations and support mechanisms designed to facilitate the sector’s transformation and ensure its stability. Key regulations are outlined in the Energy Law [56]. This law defines the principles for the functioning of the energy market and the obligations of energy companies. Another important document is the Energy Policy of Poland until 2040 (PEP2040), adopted in February 2021, which outlines the long-term directions for Poland’s energy transformation. It includes the development of RESs, the introduction of nuclear energy, offshore wind energy, and the modernization of heating systems. PEP2040 emphasizes a just transition, aimed at supporting coal-dependent regions through new jobs in the RES sectors and the implementation of measures to improve air quality and energy efficiency. The Renewable Energy Sources Act [56] establishes various support mechanisms, such as guaranteed tariffs, energy purchase auctions, and the possibility for prosumers to sell surplus energy. Amendments to this act increasingly focus on supporting the development of renewable energy sources, such as photovoltaics and wind energy, while promoting the growth of small prosumer installations to contribute to the decarbonization of Poland’s energy mix.
To reduce CO2 emissions and promote energy efficiency, the Polish system has implemented a system of emission fees and special financial programs to support pro-ecological investments. These initiatives include providing support for companies and households in installing eco-friendly heating systems, modernizing buildings, and electrifying transport. Poland continues to update these strategies to align with EU goals, such as the European Green Deal, as well as to address energy security and environmental protection needs.
The adaptation strategies of the Polish energy system aim to transform the country into a more sustainable and secure energy framework that can address the challenges of decarbonization and the integration of renewable energy sources. Through efforts to diversify energy sources, modernize the grid, develop energy storage, and support prosumers, Poland is increasingly better prepared to adapt to the changing conditions in the energy sector. It should also be noted that the integration of renewable energy sources with the national electricity grid requires expanding and modernizing the existing transmission and distribution infrastructure. Power grids were originally designed to transmit energy from central power plants to end users and are not suited to support numerous distributed energy sources, such as wind farms and photovoltaic installations. Uncontrolled energy flows from these sources can lead to grid overloads and increase the risk of failures and blackouts, necessitating the modernization of transmission and distribution networks.
Effective implementation of renewable energy sources and technologies that support grid stability requires government backing and appropriate legal regulations. Programs that subsidize the development of energy storage, smart grid technologies, and local microgrids can accelerate the growth of the renewable energy sector and improve grid stability. The introduction of transparent legal frameworks that support the development of stabilization technologies and promote the decentralization of energy production can significantly enhance the energy transition. The mutual integration of national energy markets within the European Union can provide additional support for grid stability. As part of the European energy market, Poland can benefit from cross-border connections that enable better management of energy flows and stabilization of the system in situations of surplus or shortage of renewable energy production in any one country. Cross-border projects, such as transmission connections with Germany, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania, enable the efficient use of energy resources in the region, strengthening the stability of the Polish power system.

3.4. Scenarios for the Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and the Stability of Power Grids

The development of RESs in Poland is crucial in the context of pursuing decarbonization, in line with European climate and energy policies. However, this transition presents a challenge for the stability of the Polish electricity grid, as the variability of energy supply from RESs requires significant investments in modern technologies, such as energy storage and smart grids. Based on the considerations and analysis, possible scenarios for the development of the RES sector in Poland and its potential impact on the stability of energy networks are proposed as follows:
  • Optimistic scenario—The optimistic scenario assumes rapid and widespread development of renewable energy, supported by significant investments in network infrastructure, energy storage, and innovative energy management technologies. Poland effectively integrates energy storage solutions, such as lithium-ion batteries and pumped-storage power plants, which provide flexibility in the system and enable the accumulation of surplus energy from renewable sources to be used during periods of lower production. Another key pillar of stability is the implementation of smart energy networks (smart grids), which enable dynamic management of energy flow and real-time monitoring of supply and demand. These technologies allow the system to better integrate variable energy sources, such as wind and solar, minimizing the risk of overloads and blackouts. Regulatory support from the government and policies encouraging the development of local microgrids facilitate the decentralization of energy production and its more efficient management. Microgrids can operate independently or integrate with the main grid, offering greater stability, particularly in areas with a high density of prosumer installations. Additionally, widely implemented energy demand management programs allow for the active adjustment of consumption to match RES production, supporting overall system stability. As a result of these efforts, Poland achieves safe and sustainable development of the RES sector, while the power grid remains stable despite the dynamic growth in the share of renewable energy sources.
  • Neutral scenario—This scenario assumes moderate development of RESs in Poland, supported by limited but progressively implemented investments in network infrastructure and stabilizing technologies. The development of renewable energy is primarily focused on photovoltaic and wind technologies (Figure 8), but investment and infrastructure constraints slow down the full integration of RESs with the national energy grid.
Figure 8 shows the projected development of electricity production from RESs in Poland from 2005 to 2030, broken down by technology. The chart illustrates a significant increase in electricity production from RESs, with a noticeable growth from 2020 to 2030. Particularly noticeable is the dynamic development of photovoltaic and hydroelectric power plants, which will become the dominant sources of renewable energy in Poland by 2030. It is expected that total electricity production from RESs will reach 8000–9000 kWh by 2030, indicating an increasing share of renewable energy sources in the country’s energy mix.
In the area of energy storage, selected solutions are being introduced, mainly in the form of batteries and pumped-storage projects, but their capacity and availability remain insufficient to fully balance the variability of production from RESs. Smart grids are being developed gradually, improving the efficiency of energy transmission, but the implementation of technologies such as dynamic demand management systems is limited to selected regions. The growth of prosumer energy, supported by financial systems, continues to contribute to the decentralization of energy, but there is a lack of full integration of local microgrids with the central system. In this scenario, the Polish power grid remains stable, but during periods of sudden production surges or power supply interruptions, challenges arise in balancing the system. As a result, Poland achieves a moderate share of RESs in the energy mix, but full stabilization of the grid will require further investments and new regulations to enable a more dynamic development of storage technologies and intelligent network solutions.
  • Pessimistic scenario—This scenario assumes slow and ineffective development of RESs, with limited investments in infrastructure and a lack of government action. In this scenario, the growth of photovoltaics and wind energy faces significant barriers, primarily due to insufficient funding for expanding transmission infrastructure and energy storage. Regulatory restrictions and the absence of effective support systems for prosumers, as well as inadequate investments in modern stabilization technologies, lead to the destabilization of the power grid. The lack of energy storage development results in surplus energy from RESs often being unable to be effectively managed, increasing the risk of overloads and grid instability during peak production periods. The variability of energy supply from renewable sources causes frequent voltage fluctuations, leading to a greater risk of blackouts and costly grid upgrades. The centralization of energy production and the absence of local microgrids further complicate the management of distributed RESs. In such a scenario, Poland struggles with power system instability, and the development of RESs progresses slowly and ineffectively. The insufficient integration of renewable energy sources leads to higher costs for maintaining grid stability, and the country’s decarbonization and energy transformation efforts are severely hindered, threatening the achievement of European climate goals.
The development of renewable energy sources in Poland presents significant opportunities, but also challenges for the stability of the power grid. A key element of success will be investing in modern technologies, such as energy storage, smart grids, and local microgrids, which will enable the effective integration of variable renewable energy sources. The optimistic scenario outlines the path to a sustainable energy transformation, emphasizing the importance of regulatory support and innovative solutions. In contrast, the neutral and pessimistic scenarios highlight the consequences of insufficient action—ranging from moderate progress to a serious threat to system stability and the achievement of climate goals. The path that Poland chooses to follow will be crucial for the future of its national energy sector and climate protection.

4. Discussion

The dynamic development of renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, presents a challenge to the stability of Poland’s electricity grid. In particular, the variability and unpredictability of energy production from RESs complicate grid management. These sources are highly dependent on weather conditions, making it difficult to accurately forecast energy production, which can lead to overloads or shortages in the grid. For example, studies conducted by the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E) show that during periods of high solar and wind energy production, energy generation can increase by up to 40% in just a few hours. However, when weather conditions change, this production can decrease by about 20–30% in a very short period [67]. Such fluctuations present significant challenges for grid balancing, which requires the use of advanced demand management and storage technologies [68].
In Poland, the capacity of energy storage installations was around 80 MW in 2023, accounting for only 0.3% of the installed capacity in renewable energy sources (estimated at about 24 GW) [69]. In comparison, Germany has an energy storage capacity of approximately 8 GW, which enables it to manage surplus energy from renewable sources much more effectively and balance the grid [70]. It is estimated that for Poland to fully protect itself against fluctuations in renewable energy production, its storage capacity should increase to at least 2–3 GW by 2030, which would require significant investments [71].
The Polish energy infrastructure requires modernization to meet the growing demands resulting from the integration of renewable energy sources. Investments in transmission and distribution networks are essential to enhance their flexibility and resilience to fluctuations in energy production. Without proper modernization, there is a risk of overloads, blackouts, and increased energy losses during transmission, which could undermine the effectiveness of implementing renewable sources.
Poland needs to implement more integrated adaptation strategies that encompass both the development of stabilization technologies and the adoption of flexible energy policies. Introducing mechanisms that enable a flexible response to fluctuations in renewable energy production is crucial. Strategies such as the diversification of energy sources, the integration of different types of renewable energy (wind, solar, biomass), and the development of demand management programs (e.g., dynamic tariffs) can help better balance network loads.
Support from state policy, both through regulations and financial programs, is essential to accelerate the development of renewable energy technologies and stabilize the grid. Government policies should focus more on promoting investment in innovative technologies and modernizing infrastructure. To ensure grid stability, Poland should aim for a balanced energy mix, integrating various types of renewable energy with traditional energy sources and implementing hybrid technologies that can act as system stabilizers.
The stability of the Polish energy network, in the context of the development of renewable energy sources, requires cooperation with neighboring countries and regions of Europe. The integration of energy markets and joint cross-border projects can help optimize energy flows and stabilize the system. As part of the European energy market, Poland should actively participate in initiatives related to cross-border connections, which can enhance the flexibility and security of the network.

5. Conclusions

The development of renewable energy sources in Poland is an essential component of the energy transition, aligned with the objectives of the European Union and national policies. However, the increase in installed capacity of RESs presents challenges related to the stability of energy networks. The adoption of modern technologies, such as energy storage systems, smart grids, and demand management, is crucial to addressing these challenges. Ultimately, the success of the energy transition depends on investments in infrastructure and the effective implementation of adaptation strategies that will enable the integration of renewable energy sources into the Polish power system, ensuring its stability and security. RESs are becoming a key element of the Polish energy mix, contributing to the energy transition and the reduction of CO2 emissions.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.H.B. and W.D.; methodology, M.K.; validation, K.H.B., W.D. and M.K.; formal analysis, K.H.B.; investigation, M.K.; resources, K.H.B.; data curation, W.D.; writing—original draft preparation, K.H.B.; writing—review and editing, W.D.; visualization, M.K.; supervision, K.H.B.; project administration, K.H.B.; funding acquisition, W.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Energies 18 02036 i001Co-financed by the Minister of Science under the “Regional Excellence Initiative”.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. The energy map of Poland showing wind and solar energy. Source: [3].
Figure 1. The energy map of Poland showing wind and solar energy. Source: [3].
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Figure 2. Comparison of the structure of electricity production in Poland in 2021–2023 [GWh]. Source: [21].
Figure 2. Comparison of the structure of electricity production in Poland in 2021–2023 [GWh]. Source: [21].
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Figure 3. The monthly production of electrical energy from three renewable energy sources—hydro energy, wind energy, and solar photovoltaic energy—over the period from 2019 to 2023. [GWh]. Source: [21].
Figure 3. The monthly production of electrical energy from three renewable energy sources—hydro energy, wind energy, and solar photovoltaic energy—over the period from 2019 to 2023. [GWh]. Source: [21].
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Figure 4. Total installed capacity in renewable energy source (RES) installations in 2019–2023 in Poland [MW]. Source: [21].
Figure 4. Total installed capacity in renewable energy source (RES) installations in 2019–2023 in Poland [MW]. Source: [21].
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Figure 5. Number of prosumers in 2018–2023 in Poland [pcs]. Source: [21].
Figure 5. Number of prosumers in 2018–2023 in Poland [pcs]. Source: [21].
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Figure 6. Energy production from water, wind, and solar sources in selected months in Poland in 2023. Source: [40].
Figure 6. Energy production from water, wind, and solar sources in selected months in Poland in 2023. Source: [40].
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Figure 7. The energy storage capacity and the renewable energy capacity in Poland for the year 2023 and the projected scenarios for 2030 (lower and upper estimates). Source: [40].
Figure 7. The energy storage capacity and the renewable energy capacity in Poland for the year 2023 and the projected scenarios for 2030 (lower and upper estimates). Source: [40].
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Figure 8. Electricity production from RESs by technology—electricity sector [ktoe] * normalized values. Source: [66].
Figure 8. Electricity production from RESs by technology—electricity sector [ktoe] * normalized values. Source: [66].
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Table 1. The key stages of the conducted research.
Table 1. The key stages of the conducted research.
StageThe MethodologyDescription
1Literature ReviewUnderstanding challenges and identifying technologies
2Data AnalysisExamining trends and stability impacts of RESs
3Scenario DevelopmentForecasting future challenges and solutions
4Focus AreasEnergy storage, smart grids, and demand management
Source: own elaboration.
Table 2. Technologies supporting network stability.
Table 2. Technologies supporting network stability.
Energy storageOne solution to the problems related to the instability of renewable energy sources is the development of energy storage systems. These systems can accumulate surplus energy produced during periods of high generation (e.g., during strong winds or intense sunlight) and then return it to the grid when demand exceeds production. However, in Poland, their number and capacity are still insufficient to fully balance fluctuations in energy production from renewable sources. The lack of appropriate storage means that excess energy produced during peak generation periods often cannot be stored for use during periods of lower production. Technologies such as lithium-ion batteries, pumped-storage power plants, and modern solutions based on hydrogen are crucial for grid stability. However, these technologies may also pose potential larger issues. For example, lithium-ion batteries carry the risk of thermal runaway, which can lead to severe malfunctions, and they may also generate significant economic problems, such as high costs for purchasing, maintaining, and disposing of these devices.
Development of intelligent networks
(smart grid)		The second important element is the development of smart energy grids, which allow for more efficient management of energy flow. Smart grids are systems that, through advanced information and communication technologies, enable dynamic adjustment of energy transmission based on demand, as well as automatic diagnosis and repair of network issues. These networks are better equipped to integrate variable energy sources and manage diverse demand sources, significantly increasing the stability of the system.
Demand-side management technologiesDemand-side management technologies are also an important tool, as they allow for the flexible adjustment of energy consumption to production conditions. In the context of renewable energy, it is particularly important to introduce mechanisms that enable customers to adjust their energy consumption in response to market signals. For example, demand-side management programs can encourage customers to shift their energy consumption to periods when renewable energy production is high.
Source: own study based on [35,36,37,38,39].
Table 3. Comparison of conventional and intelligent networks.
Table 3. Comparison of conventional and intelligent networks.
Conventional NetworkSmart Network
One-wayTwo-way
AnalogDigitized (digital)
Centralized generationDistributed generation
Low number of sensors in the networkHighly sensorized network
Radial architectureRing architecture
Low level of work monitoringWork monitored in real time
Low vulnerability to cyberattacksHigh vulnerability to cyberattacks
Source: own study based on [53,54,55,56].
Table 4. Adaptation strategies.
Table 4. Adaptation strategies.
Investments in transmission infrastructureOne of the priorities is the modernization and expansion of the transmission infrastructure. In many regions, the Polish power grid requires extensive modernization to effectively handle the dynamically growing number of distributed energy sources. PSE is currently implementing investment programs aimed at increasing the network’s capacity and improving its stability. According to the PSE report, “the expansion of the transmission infrastructure is key to integrating renewable energy sources on a large scale and ensuring the safe operation of the system”.
Integration of the energy market with the European systemThe integration of the Polish energy market with the European market is another step toward system stabilization. Joint cross-border projects, such as transmission connections with Germany, the Czech Republic, and Lithuania, enable better management of energy flows, especially in situations of surplus production from renewable energy sources in one country and deficits in another. Market integration supports system stability and increases the flexibility of energy management.
Support policies and regulationsGovernment support policies and legal regulations are crucial for the further development of renewable energy sources. Continuing subsidy programs, support for energy storage systems, and the creation of an appropriate legal framework for the development of smart grid and demand management technologies will contribute to the stabilization of the energy system.
Source: own study based on [4,50,60,61,62].
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Bachanek, K.H.; Drożdż, W.; Kolon, M. Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and Stability of Power Grids—Challenges, Technologies, and Adaptation Strategies. Energies 2025, 18, 2036. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082036

AMA Style

Bachanek KH, Drożdż W, Kolon M. Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and Stability of Power Grids—Challenges, Technologies, and Adaptation Strategies. Energies. 2025; 18(8):2036. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082036

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bachanek, Konrad Henryk, Wojciech Drożdż, and Maciej Kolon. 2025. "Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and Stability of Power Grids—Challenges, Technologies, and Adaptation Strategies" Energies 18, no. 8: 2036. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082036

APA Style

Bachanek, K. H., Drożdż, W., & Kolon, M. (2025). Development of Renewable Energy Sources in Poland and Stability of Power Grids—Challenges, Technologies, and Adaptation Strategies. Energies, 18(8), 2036. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18082036

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