Self-Compacting High-Strength Textile-Reinforced Concrete Using Sea Sand and Sea Water
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Research Framework
1.2. Problem Statement
1.3. The Ocean as a Source of Basic Concrete Constituents
2. Materials and Methods
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- compressive strength at age of 3, 7 and 28 days according to the methodology in [54], load application rate 2.45 kN/s;
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- flexural strength at age of 3, 7 and 28 days according to the methodology in [54] (three-point load schema), load application rate 0.05 kN/s;
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- modulus of elasticity at the age of 28 days [55];
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- drying shrinkage determined with linear method [56];
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- water absorption: the samples were initially dried for 24 h at 105 °C, then weighed. Afterward, the samples were placed in a water bath for 48 h in such a way that the water level was 5 cm above the top of the samples. The samples were then taken out from the water bath, lightly wiped with a dry cloth and weighed. The water absorption was determined in %, as the mass difference between a dry and a water-saturated sample;
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- uniaxial tensile strength test [57], load rate 1 mm/min.
3. Test Results and Discussion
3.1. Compressive Strength and Water Absorption
3.2. Flexural Strength
3.3. Elastic Modulus
3.4. Drying Shrinkage
3.5. Textile-Reinforced Concrete—Uniaxial Tensile Test
3.6. CO2 Emissions of SCHSC
4. Conclusions and Outlook
- -
- the flowability of the sea concrete was more viscous than the control concrete because of the amount of sea shells, which are contained in the sea sand, and because of the salt in the sea water, which accelerated the hydration. Therefore, a higher content of superplasticizer for the concrete mixture with sea water and sea sand can be expected. Additionally, the air content test confirmed that, although self-compacting concrete was produced, which usually has a higher air content, in this case, it was below the limit of 5–6% and had no negative influence on the pore structure;
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- the use of sea sand and sea water for the production of SCHSC based on slag cement makes it possible to produce concretes with comparable mechanical properties while significantly improving the life cycle assessment. At the age of 3 days, the compressive strength of the sea concrete composition was 37.3 MPa, which was around 10.9 MPa lower than the compressive strength of the control concrete composition at 48.2 MPa, due to the slower hydration rate of the slag cement. However, this cannot be considered a negative effect because, in new construction, early strength is not paramount. It was experimentally established that at the age of 28 days, sea concrete had a compressive strength of 72 MPa, which corresponds to the concrete grade of C45/55. The strength of the control concrete was 69.4 MPa, which corresponds to the concrete grade of C40/45. The flexural strength at the age of 3, 7, 28 days of sea concrete was slightly lower (6.1 MPa, 7.7 MPa, 9.2 MPa) than the flexural strength (7.1 MPa, 7.6 MPa, 11.1 MPa) of control concrete due to the weak surface contact between the shells and the cement matrix;
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- after 28 days, the modulus of elasticity for the sea concrete showed a higher value of 39.1 GPa in comparison to the control concrete value of 38.9 GPa, which showed that sea water had no effect on it;
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- the studies on durability in the form of drying shrinkage show that at the early ages (3 days), the sea concrete shrinkage deformations exceed 122% with 0.6 mm/m in comparison to the control concrete. This is explained by the fact that, with the use of sea water, the pore structure is refined, and the capillary pores (>100 nm) are reduced [18]. Due to their size, the capillary pores have a faster and better water transport. At the same time, the number of fine gel pores increases, but they can hold the water for a very long time and cause larger shrinkage deformations [80]. After 56 days, the shrinkage deformations between the sea concrete (1.07 mm/m) and the control concrete (0.97 mm/m) had a fading character;
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- the combination effect of sea concrete as an SCHSC with textile reinforcement on the tensile strength (3.6 MPa) shows equal results to the control concrete (3.3 MPa) with a slightly increasing trend. The obtained data on the performance of textile-reinforced concrete based on sea and control concrete matrices show the same result.
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- the raw materials used for the production of concrete in our experiment can be recommended for the construction of facilities near the sea coast, which makes it possible to obtain SCHSC. It is important to note that by using slag cement in the production of textile-reinforced structures, CO2 emissions can be significantly reduced. The ability to use sea sand as an aggregate also eliminates the need to deliver this material to the construction site, which further reduces CO2 emissions. Figure 13 shows that the decrease in CO2 emissions for 1 m3 of concrete would be more than 90% in total. In addition, the use of textile-reinforced concrete allows us to reduce the cross-sectional thickness of structural elements, which makes it possible to reduce the material consumption and bypass corrosion of steel reinforcement due to sea sand/water.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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GWP in kg CO2,e/kg | |
---|---|
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) | 1 |
CEM I 32.5 (Portland cement) | 0.664 |
CEM I 42.5 (Portland cement) | 0.797 |
CEM I 52.5 (Portland cement) | 0.816 |
CEM II 32.5 (Portland composite cement) | 0.785 |
CEM II 42.5 (Portland composite cement) | 0.794 |
CEM II 52.5 (Portland composite cement) | 0.807 |
CEM II/A | 0.874 |
CEM II/B | 0.718 |
CEM III 42.5 (GBFS) | 0.386 |
CEM III 52.5 (GBFS) | 0.399 |
CEM III/B 42.5-LH/SR | 0.281 |
CEM IV 32.5 (Pozzolan cement) | 0.674 |
CEM IV 42.5 (Pozzolan cement) | 0.685 |
Reference average cement (indicative) | 0.553 |
Fly ash (with allocation) | 0.350 |
Granulated blast furnace slag (with allocation) | 0.114 |
Volcanic ash | 0.026 |
Calcinated clay | 0.125 |
Silica dust | 0.028 |
Sand Type | Bulk Density, kg/m3 | Water Absorption, % |
---|---|---|
Normal sand | 1590 | 2.58 |
Sea sand | 1510 | 3.51 |
Mixture | Cement, kg/m3 | Normal Sand, kg/m3 | Sea Sand, kg/m3 | Quartz Flour, kg/m3 | Superplasticizer, kg/m3 | Water, kg/m3 | Sea Water, kg/m3 | W/C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control concrete | 670 | 1284 | - | 224 | 3.3 | 268 | - | 0.4 |
Sea concrete | - | 1284 | 3.58 | - | 268 |
Mixture | Slump Slow, mm | Density, kg/m3 | Air Content, % |
---|---|---|---|
Control concrete | 610 | 2315 | 4.8 |
Sea concrete | 620 | 2305 | 4.6 |
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Kryzhanovskyi, V.; Avramidou, A.; Orlowsky, J.; Spyridis, P. Self-Compacting High-Strength Textile-Reinforced Concrete Using Sea Sand and Sea Water. Materials 2023, 16, 4934. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144934
Kryzhanovskyi V, Avramidou A, Orlowsky J, Spyridis P. Self-Compacting High-Strength Textile-Reinforced Concrete Using Sea Sand and Sea Water. Materials. 2023; 16(14):4934. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144934
Chicago/Turabian StyleKryzhanovskyi, Vitalii, Athanasia Avramidou, Jeanette Orlowsky, and Panagiotis Spyridis. 2023. "Self-Compacting High-Strength Textile-Reinforced Concrete Using Sea Sand and Sea Water" Materials 16, no. 14: 4934. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144934