Conductive Polymer-Based Electrodes and Supercapacitors: Materials, Electrolytes, and Characterizations
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Supercapacitors Based on Conducting Polymers
- C: capacitance between two electrodes;
- A: area of the two surfaces of the electrodes that face each other;
- ε: dielectric constant of the electrolyte; and
- d: separation distance between two electrodes.
- Cp: positive electrode/electrolyte; and
- Cn: negative electrode/electrolyte.
- V0: lower potential limit (V);
- ΔV: potential window (V);
- I: current (A); and
- Δt: discharge time (s).
2.1. Electric Double-Layer Capacitors or EDLC Supercapacitors
2.2. Pseudo-Supercapacitors or Faradaic Supercapacitors
2.3. Hybrid Supercapacitors
3. Electrode Material
3.1. Conducting Polymers (CPs)
3.1.1. Polypyrrole
3.1.2. Polyaniline
3.1.3. Polythiophene (PTh)
4. Electrode Arrangement: Two vs. Three Electrodes
4.1. Three-Electrode System
4.2. Two-Electrode System
5. Electrolyte
5.1. Liquid Electrolyte
Electrode Type | Electrolyte | Cell Voltage (V) | Specific Capacitance (F/g) | Energy Density (W h/kg) | Power Density (W/kg) | Temp. (°C) | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mesoporous MnO2 | 0.65 M K2SO4 | 1 | 224.88 at 1 mV/s | 24.1 | 70 | RT | [135], 2012 |
Mesoporous MnO2 | 1 M Li2SO4 | 1 | 284.24 at 1 mV/s | 28.8 | 70 | RT | [135] |
Mesoporous MnO2 | 1 M Na2SO4 | 1 | 278.8 at 1 mV/s | 28.4 | 70 | RT | [135] |
MnO2 nano flowers | 1 M LiOH | 0.6 | 363 at 2 mV/s | - | - | - | [136], 2015 |
MnO2@carbon nanofibers composites | 0.5 M Na2SO4 | 0.85 | 551 at 2 mV/s (75 1C) | - | - | 0–75 | [137], 2013 |
AC | 0.5 M Na2SO4 | 1.6 | 135 at 0.2 A/g | 10 | - | - | [133], 2010 |
AC | 4 M NaNO3-EG | 2 | 22.3 at 2 mV/s | 14–16 | 500 | 0–60 | [138], 2014 |
AC | 1 M NaNO3 | 1.6 | 116 at 2 mV/s | - | - | RT | [139], 2014 |
AC | Na2SO4/0.5 M | 1.6 | 135 at 0.2 A/g | 10 | - | - | [133] |
AC fibers | 1 M H2SO4 | 0.9 | 280 at 0.5 A/g | - | - | RT | [140], 2014 |
PANi-grafted rGO/AC | 1 M H2SO4 | 0.8 | 1045.51 at 0.2 A/g | 8.3 | 60,000 | - | [141], 2014 |
Graphene/mPANi | 1 M H2SO4 | 0.7 | 749 at 0.5 A/g | 11.3 | 106.7 | - | [142], 2014 |
PPy thin films | 0.5 M H2SO4 | 1 | 510 at 0.25 mA/cm2 | 133 | 758 | - | [143], 2014 |
Pristine flexible PPy membrane | Solid PVA/H2SO4/EG | 0.7 | 191.7 at 0.5 A/g | 14.1 | 181.9 | RT | [144], 2021 |
Electrode Material | Electrolyte | Cell Voltage (V) | Specific Capacitance (F/g) | Power Density (W/Kg) | Energy Density (Wh/Kg) | Temp. (°C) | Refs. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Electrode materials in double layer supercapacitors | |||||||
AC | 1.5 M SBPBF4/PC | 3.5 | 122 at 0.1 A/g | - | 52 | RT | [150], 2014 |
AC | 1.6 M TEAODFB/PC | 2.5 | 21.4 at 1 A/g | ~1000 | 28 (20 °C) | −40 to 60 | [151], 2012 |
AC | 0.7 M TEABF4/ADN | 3.75 | 25 at 20 mV/s | - | 28 | RT | [152], 2012 |
AC | 1 M TEABF4/HFIP | - | 110 at 1 mV/s | - | - | - | [153], 2012 |
Microporous carbide derived carbon | 1 M NaPF6/(EC-DMC-PC-EA 1:1:1:0.5) | 3.4 | 120 at 1 mV/s | ~90 | ~40 | −40 to 60 | [154], 2014 |
Highly porous interconnected carbon nanosheets | 1 M TEABF4/ACN | 2.7 | B120-150 at 1 mV/s | 25,000-27,000 | 25 | - | [155], 2014 |
Heteroatom doped porous carbon flakes | M LiPF6/(EC-DEC 1:1) | 3 | 126 at 1 A/g | 2243 | 29 | RT | [156], 2014 |
Carbon (provided by Batscap) | 1 M SBPBF4/ACN | 2.3 | 109 | - | - | −30 to 60 | [157], 2013 |
Graphene-CNT composite | 1 M TEABF4/PC | 3 | 110 at 1 A/g | 400 | 34.3 | - | [158], 2013 |
Microporous TiC-CDC | 1 M TEMABF4/(PC-PS 95:5) | 2.7 | 100 at 10 mV/s (60 1C) | ~1000 | ~25–27 | −40 to 60 | [159], 2014 |
Electrode materials in pesedoucapacitors | |||||||
PANi/graphite | 0.5 M LiClO4/PC | 1 | ~420 at 50 mV/s | - | - | RT | [160], 2013 |
MoO3 nanosheets | 1 M LiClO4/PC | - | 540 at 0.1 mV/s | - | - | - | [147], 2010 |
Nanoporous Co3O4 -graphene composite | 1 M LiPF6/(EC-DEC 1:1) | - | 424.2 at 1 A/g | - | - | RT | [161], 2014 |
Heterostructured poly (3,6-dithien-2-yl-9H-carbazol-9-yl acetic acid)/TiO2 nanoparticles composite | 0.5 M Bu4NBF4/ACN | 1.2 | 462.88 at 2.5 mA/cm2 | - | 89.98 | RT | [162], 2014 |
5.2. Solid and Quasi-Solid Electrolytes
5.3. Redox-Active Electrolytes
5.4. Self-Healing Electrolytes
6. Characterization Methods
6.1. Electrochemical Analysis
6.1.1. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS)
6.1.2. Cyclic Voltammetry
- v: scan rate (v/s);
- Eλ: switching potential;
- Ei: initial potential; and
- λ: run time at switching potential.
6.1.3. Cyclic Charge–Discharge (CCD)
6.2. Four-Point Probe for Resistivity Measurement
6.3. Infrared Spectroscopy
6.4. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
6.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Supercapacitors (SC) | Lithium-Ion Battery | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
EDLC SC | Pseudo SC | Hybrid SC | ||
Cycle life | 106 | 105 | 5 × 105 | 500 |
Energy density (Wh⋅kg−1) | 3–5 | 10 | 180 | 250 |
Power density (W⋅Kg−1) | 3 × 103 | 107 | 103 | 100 |
Operating temperature (°C) | −40 to 65 | −40 to 65 | −40 to 65 | −20 to 60 |
Self-discharge per month (%) | 60 | 60 | Not available | 4 |
Type of electrolyte | Aprotic or protic | Protic | Aprotic | Aprotic |
Polymers | Theoretical Structures |
---|---|
Polyacetylene (Pac) | |
Polypyrrole (PPy) | |
Polythiophene (PTh) | |
Poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) | |
Polyaniline (PANi) | |
Poly(para-phenylene) (PPP) | |
Poly(phenylene-vinylene) (PPV) | |
Poly(thienylene-vinylene) (PTV) | |
Poly(furylene-vinylene) (PFV) | |
Poly(phenylene sulfide) (PPS) | |
Poly(phenylene-ethylene) (PPE) | |
Polyselenophene | |
Polyfuran | |
Polyindole | |
Polyfluorene | |
Polypyridine | |
Poly(diphenylamine) | |
Poly(thieno [3,2-b]pyrrole |
Element | Binding Energy (eV) |
---|---|
Carbon (C1S) | 284.5–285.1 |
Nitrogen (N1S) | 396.1–400.5 |
Oxygen (O1s) | 526.2–533.5 |
Silicon (Si2p) | 98.8–99.5 |
Sulfur (S2p3/2) | 164.0–164.3 |
Iron (Fe2p3/2) | 706.8–707.2 |
Gold (Au4f7/2) | 83.8–84.2 |
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Roohi, Z.; Mighri, F.; Zhang, Z. Conductive Polymer-Based Electrodes and Supercapacitors: Materials, Electrolytes, and Characterizations. Materials 2024, 17, 4126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164126
Roohi Z, Mighri F, Zhang Z. Conductive Polymer-Based Electrodes and Supercapacitors: Materials, Electrolytes, and Characterizations. Materials. 2024; 17(16):4126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164126
Chicago/Turabian StyleRoohi, Zahra, Frej Mighri, and Ze Zhang. 2024. "Conductive Polymer-Based Electrodes and Supercapacitors: Materials, Electrolytes, and Characterizations" Materials 17, no. 16: 4126. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164126