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Article

The Effect of Hydromorphism on Soils and Soil Organic Matter during the Primary Succession Processes of Forest Vegetation on Ancient Alluvial Sands of the European North-East of Russia

by
Irina A. Likhanova
*,
Svetlana V. Deneva
,
Yuriy V. Kholopov
,
Elena G. Kuznetsova
,
Olga V. Shakhtarova
and
Elena M. Lapteva
Institute of Biology of Komi Science Centre of the Ural Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, 28 Kommunisticheskaya St., 167982 Syktyvkar, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2022, 13(2), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020230
Submission received: 27 December 2021 / Revised: 19 January 2022 / Accepted: 31 January 2022 / Published: 3 February 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter and Nutrient Cycling in Forests)
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Abstract

:
The article considers the role of hydromorphism in the soil formation processes on ancient alluvial sandy deposits at the primary succession period. Soil organic matter was given special attention. The studies were carried out in the European north-east of Russia (the Komi Republic) in the middle taiga subzone in the territory of a building-sand quarry (61°57′35″ N, 50°36′22″ E) and background sites near the quarry. The authors analyzed the morphological structure of soil profiles, and the principal physical-chemical properties of mature and young soils forming under pine forests. Formation of forest litter and humus-accumulative horizons, as well as soil organic matter accumulation were thoroughly studied. Already in the fourth–fifth succession decades, the soils in a series of increasing hydromorphism actively demonstrated regularities that are normally characteristic of background soils, for example, increase in acidity, silt fraction, carbon and nitrogen reserves. Against moisture deficiency, the accumulation rate of organic carbon became slow and amounted to 0.07–0.11 t ha−1 year−1. The excessive soil moisture content increased the rate up to 0.38–0.58 t ha−1 year−1 due to the conservation of plant material in the form of peat. The upper 50-cm profile layer of young soil contains Corg stock 3–5 times less than that of background soils. The major soil-forming processes are litter formation and podzolization in drained conditions, litter formation in conditions of high moisture, and peat formation and gleization against excessive moisture.

1. Introduction

At present, in response to the accelerated destruction of forest ecosystems under the influence of anthropogenic activities, the research of their restoration in disturbed areas is of particular relevance [1,2,3]. Primary successions in anthropogenic landscapes are a convenient model to investigate the mechanisms of the initial stage of formation of terrestrial ecosystems, their regenerative capacities [2], and to reveal the characteristics of the soil–plant system and its individual components, including soil organic matter [1]. The importance of studying carbon in post-technogenic ecosystems and its sequestration by soils is increasing due to global climate change [4,5,6].
It has been found that the highest rate of carbon accumulation in soils of anthropogenic landscapes is characterized by the initial stages of succession [1,7,8,9]; it decreases as the biological cycle stabilizes [10]. This is also typical for natural primary successions [11]. In the taiga zone in the north-east of European Russia [12] and in the Urals [7] the rate of soil carbon accumulation during the first 2–3 decades of succession varies from 0.1 to 0.7 t/ha per year. The variation in the values obtained is mainly due to differences in the properties of parent rocks, the nature of the formation of bioclimatic characteristics of regions, the composition, and structure of the vegetation cover [7,12,13].
Our earlier studies of primary soil formation on various substrates (fluvioglacial sands and sandy loams, moraine loams) in the Middle Taiga subzone of the Komi Republic [12] showed the need for their continuation to obtain more detailed information on the processes of accumulation and transformation of soil organic matter during the secondary succession in the north. For this reason, soils formed on ancient alluvial sands served as one of the objects of study.
In the Komi Republic, sandy soil-forming rocks of ancient alluvial origin are fairly well widespread [14]. They are confined to different-age terraces of rivers and are characterized by mineralogical composition sorting and poorness (quartz predominates). The properties of sandy rocks (high water permeability, low absorption capacity, poorness of plant food compounds) largely determine the characteristics of the development of land cover in the taiga zone, i.e., the formation in automorphic conditions of podzols under lichen and green-moss pine forests [15,16].
Anthropogenic activity can significantly change the topography of an area and, consequently, the hydrological regime [17,18]. Soils of northern regions including the Komi Republic, due to the specificity of climate (high precipitation and low evaporation), show a tendency to significant overmoisturing and bog formation [14]. Short-term, long-term or permanent waterlogging of the soil (soil moisture above the field capacity) is a factor indicating the development of hydromorphic soils [19]. In such soils, pedogenesis occurs under anaerobic conditions due to the filling of the pore space of the soil matrix with free water. This promotes the development of gleying and accumulation of acid organic compounds in soils. Upon a lentic hydrological regime, reduction in Fe-compounds, the formation of salts and Fe2+-organomineral complexes makes gleyed horizons of cool colour [19,20,21,22]. Hydrogenous Fe-accumulations, Fe-Mn concretions and noduls appear due to the effect of waterlogging in the horizons of soil profile [23,24,25]. Extra water saturation of soils, under conditions of oxygen deficiency and decreased temperatures, promotes the soil organic matter accumulation in the form of peat and the formation of peat horizons [16,26,27,28,29].
Despite the large number of studies on properties and regimes of waterlogged soils of natural landscapes [19,20,21,22,30], the appearance of soil hydromorphism on the primary soil-forming stage has not been studied enough. Literature analysis has shown that studies on the formation of soil and plant cover in disturbed areas are mainly devoted to the investigation of this process in automorphic conditions [1,7,18,31].
The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of hydromorphism on the formation of soils and soil organic matter during the primary succession on ancient alluvial deposits exposed as a result of technogenic impact (quarrying) in the middle taiga subzone in the European north-east of Russia.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The studies were carried out in the territory of the taiga zone of the European north-east of Russia (the Komi Republic), 35 km north-west of the city of Syktyvkar. The study site is located on the left-bank part of the floodplain (pine forest) terrace of the Vychegda River (altitude is about 80–100 m a. s. l.). The relief is wavy. Depressions are in the form of gentle endless ravines or shallow craters. The parent rocks are ancient alluvial sands texturally dominated by particles with a diameter of 0.25–0.05 mm (fine sand).
The climate of the region is temperate continental, characterized by long cold winters with stable snow cover and short cool summers. The average annual air temperature is +0.4 °C, the amount of precipitation is 560 mm. The growing season with air temperature higher +10 °C is 100 days; growing degree-days are 1500 °C, total precipitation 350–400 mm during this period [32]. In the territory under study, the river terraces host pine forests. Pine forests make the following series by the sign of increasing soil moisture: lichen pine forests (soil: iron-illuvial podzol (Albic Podzol (Arenic)) → green moss pine forests (soil: iron-illuvial podzol (Albic Podzol (Arenic)) → long moss pine forests (soil: peaty weakly-gley podzol (Gleyic Histic Podzols (Arenic)) → sphagnum pine forests (soil: peat gley podzol (Gleyic Histic Podzols (Arenic)) or peaty- and peat-gley bog soil (Dystric Histic Gleysols (Arenic)). Large sphagnum bogs with oligotrophic peat soils (Dystric Fibric Histosols) are situated in the central parts of flat-level watersheds in relief depressions [14,33].

2.2. Materials

The study object was the Yazel quarry (N 61°57′35″, E 50°36′22″). This quarry is located within the Kochchoyagskoye building sand field of 500 hectares. It was discovered in 1965–1969 and has been exploited since the 70s to the present. The Yazel quarry was selected as the oldest disturbed site within this field. Object location is represented by a typical sand terrace of the taiga zone. The sand deposits are of ancient alluvial origin. The quarry exploitation lasted until the end of the 70s and was then abandoned to overgrow. The territory of the quarry is swampy with few shallow water bodies. This is because the quarry was deepened when exploited to the level of soil and ground waters. The surface of the quarry bottom is not flat. The heights differ from 80 to 86 m above sea level. The area of the quarry is 8 hectares.
During geobotanical studies from 2013–2021, looking at the territory of the quarry and its surroundings, a selection of the same type sites was made, characterized by the similarity of the structures and species composition of vegetation as an indicator of the hydrological features of particular habitats and the succession stage of communities. Their amount varies from 3 to 5 for each type of habitat along a moisture gradient. In total, 12 sites were selected in the territory of the quarry, 17 in its surroundings, 4 key sites for each of them, forming a sequence of increasing hydromorphism (Table 1, Figure 1). At the key sites, geobotanical descriptions were made on the test plots (10 × 10 m). Table 1 shows the description data for 2021. Complete enumeration of trees and young growth was made, their diameter and height was calculated. Stand composition was calculated by the contribution of individual species of woody plants to the total wood stocks. The crown density was ocular estimated. The species composition and abundance of vascular plants, mosses and lichens forming the surface cover were revealed. The aboveground phytomass was determined by a mowing method on 50 cm × 50 cm quadrate in 10 replicates [34].
Soil pits were made in 2013, 2019 and 2021. Each site (12 sites were selected in the territory of the quarry, 17 in its surroundings,) was represented by one soil profile located at the site’s center. Sample plots were located in the area with Podzols, Histosols and Arenosols. In the territory of the quarry, the groundwater table is at a 0–6 cm depth. In total, 29 soil pits were made with morphological description of soil profile horizons (layers for soils with weak soil profile development). Soil samples were collected for physic-chemical analyses (184 samples ≈ 1 kg each), and bulk density was determined (in 3 replicates). In August 2021, at the key site, organic horizon samples were taken by a sampler with the area of 78.5 cm2 in 10 replicates to calculate the weight. Field moisture and soil temperature were determined monthly in May through September 2021. Measurements in the young soils were made layer by layer (in the organogenic layer, subsurface layers up to 10 cm depth, other layers 10–20, 20–30, 30–40 cm depth) in the background soils for each horizon.
Due to the absence of earlier data on parent material composition (investigation of the quarry was only started in 2013 in the 4th decade of succession), study results of quarry bottom substrate located near the object of our study (the quarry exploitation was ended in 2021, so this quarry is the Zero Moment of the succession process) were used as primary results. Both quarries are located within same production field, and their substrate is originally identical.
Carbon accumulation rate was calculated according to: (Q2 − Q1)/t, where Q1 is carbon stocks in the original substrate in 20 cm layer, Q2 is carbon stocks at the study time in 20 cm layer, it is succession period, years.

2.3. Methods

The soil analyzes were performed in the certified Ecoanalyt Laboratory of the Institute of Biology (Komi Science Center, Urals Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences) (certificate ROSS RU.0001.511257 from September 2019). To determine the particle size of the soils we used a standard pipette method (soil treatment with 0.05 N HCl, dispersion with 1N NaOH) [35]. Based on the obtained data, we calculated the proportion of sand (1.0–0.05 mm), silt (0.05–0.001 mm) and clay (<0.001 mm).
The pH value was determined potentiometrically with the HANNA instruments HI 8519 N (Portugal) at a soil:solution ratio of 1:25 for organic and of 1:5 for mineral horizons [36]. Oxalate extractable fractions of iron (Feox) and aluminum (Alox) were determined according to the Tamm method via atomic emission spectrometry. To extract non-silicate (Fedith) compounds from soil regardless of the crystallization degree, we applied the Mehra–Jackson method [37]. To assess the degree of soil hydromorphism, Schwertmann’s criterion or the content ratio of oxalate- and dithionite-soluble iron compounds (Feox:Fedith) in soils was used [38].
The content of total nitrogen (Ntot) and carbon (Ctot) was estimated by the gas chromatography method on the elemental CHNS-O analyzer EA 1100 (Carlo Erba, Italy). Organic carbon content (Corg) was considered to be equal to total carbon content (Ctot) since parent rocks (pHH2O < 6) contained inorganic carbon in trace concentrations and these concentrations did not exceed the method’s error. The calculation of reservoir contents of elements (Q), in particular soil horizons (layers), was carried out by multiplying soil bulk density (g cm−3), thickness of horizon (cm) and content of the corresponding Corg element, % or Ntot., % [39]. The total reserves of element were calculated by a simple summation QΣ = Q1 + Q2 + … + Qn, where n—number of horizons (layers). The content of carbon and nitrogen was calculated for the organic soil horizon (litter in forest communities, peat layer in peatlands), layers 0–20 cm, 0–50 cm, 0–100 cm (including the organic horizon).
The elemental composition was determined by the approximate quantitative method on the XRF-1800 X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (Shimadzu, Japan).
The names of soils and diagnostic horizons were identified following the Russian Soil Classification System (RSC) [40] and the World Reference Base for soil resource (WRB) [41].
The statistical processing of the results was performed using the Statistica, MS Excel software packages. The arithmetic mean values of the studied parameters and standard deviation were calculated. The regression analysis was used; to assess the significance of the differences in parameters between different soil horizons in the series of increasing moisture content, the nonparametric Kruskal–Wallis and Wilcoxon criteria were used.

3. Results

3.1. Parent Rocks of Quarry Territory

The study of the quarries of the Kochchoyagskoye field after the end of exploitation showed that technogenic surface formations (abrites) of the quarry bottom before planning work have significant differences in moisture content due to the difference in topography. They are waterlogged at lower parts, but have similar textural content with substrates at higher positions (content of sand particles > 90%). However, at the zero moment of succession, weak signs of silt particles accumulation have already presented on the surface of extra moistened parts (siltation). Abrolits are characterized by low organic carbon content (≤0.1%) and nitrogen (≤0.01%).

3.2. Vegetation Cover Characteristics

Background sites (Table 2). The vegetation cover of the background areas is typical for the study area. The stand is formed by Pinus sylvestris (BT1-BT3-sites). The maximum high biometric parameters of pine were recorded in green moss pine forest (BT2). This is apparently due to a highly favorable hydrological soil regime for woody plants in this forest type. In lichen pine forest (BT1), soil surface is covered by the fruticose lichens Cladonia arbuscula, C. rangiferina and C. stellaris, which are typical for poor dry soils. In green moss pine forest (BT2), the herbaceous-dwarf shrub layer is dominated by mesophytic dwarf shrubs (Vaccinium myrtillus, V. vitis-idaea), which are common for the taiga forest zone and the moss layer by mesophytic green mosses (Pleurozium schreberi, Hylocomium splendens, Dicranum sp.) The high soil moisture degree in sphagnum pine forest (BT3) is indicated by hygrophytic shrubs (Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum), grasses (Carex globularis) and hydrophytic mosses (Sphagnum angustifolium, S. flexuosum). The dominants of the sedge-sphagnum peatland (BT4) are hygrophytes Carex lasiocarpa and hydrophytic moss Sphagnum fallax.
Quarry (Table 2). The tree stand of its communities in automorphic (T1, T5-sites) and semi-hydromorphic (T2) conditions, and like that of the background communities, consists of Pinussylvestris. Biometric indicators and stand density increase along with soil moisture degree. Under hydromorphic conditions (T3), there is no tree stand. The aboveground cover of Site T1 is dominated by the oligotrophic fruticose lichen Cladonia mitis; there are spots of the crustose lichen Trapeliopsis granulosa. On site T5, mesoxerophytic, xeromezophytic and mesophytic common mosses Pohlia nutans, Polytrichum piliferum and P. juniperinum are abundant and typical on the primary stages of plant formation on sand substrates. The T2 site is characterized by a low projective cover of the herbaceous-dwarf shrub and mossy-lichen layers. The hygromesophytic and hygrophytic dwarf shrubs (Vaccinium uliginosum, Oxyccus palustris), grasses (Juncus nodulosus, Carex canescens, Juncus filiformis) and mosses (Polytrichum commune, Sanionia uncinata, Aulacomnium palustre) were noted. The sparse shrub layer is formed by Salix phylicifolia and Salix myrsinifolia. Hygrophytic sedges (Carex acuta, C. vesicaria) and hygrophytic, hydrophitic species of mosses (Warnstorfia exannulata, W. fluitans, Calliergon cordifolium, Sphagnum cuspidatum) dominate at site T3. The phytomass of the main botanical groups of plants in young communities of the quarry is significantly lower than in the background plant communities (Table 2).

3.3. Morphological Soil Structure

Background sites (Table 1). The organic horizon is 1.8 ± 0.3 cm thick in the soil of lichen pine forest. Eluvial Epir-horizon is dirty-grey-colored with small coals and black patches. Rusty-weakly brownish-yellow BF-(Bs)-horizon gradually transforms into yellowish-pale-brownish B horizon. The lower profile part (depth 52–100 cm) is characterized by faint ocher and bluish-grey spots. The thickness of O-horizon increases to 3.6 ± 0.6 cm under bilberry-green moss pine forest. E-horizon has a typical structure: its color is whitish, transition to tonguing BFy-(Bs)-horizon; the tongues are bordered by brownish-rusty gatherings of iron oxides. The lower profile part has rusty spots and stains, dark ocher patches, and small newly-formed concretions. The soil profile under sphagnum pine forest is characterized by a relatively thick peat horizon (18.4 ± 1.4 cm). It is clearly differentiated into three layers: on top, yellow loose sphagnum peat; in the middle part, brownish weakly decomposed peat; in the lower part, medium-decomposed dark-brownish dense peat, sometimes with coal particles. The podzolic E-horizon is greyish-whitish and has ocher and dark-brownish streaks along roots. The dark-ocher BFg-(Bsg)-horizon transforms into the dirty-grey G-(Cr)-horizon with numerous rusty-ocher and brownish spots, stains and patches, small dense iron nodules and newly-formed concretions. The peat thickness under sedge-sphagnum oligotrophic peatland reaches 80 cm and more. This is a raw organic material colored in light yellowish-brown tones and consisting mainly of remained sphagnum mosses with different decomposition degree (below 50%). It is underlain by a highly decomposed peat layer. Downwards there is bluish-grey silted loamy sand.
Quarry (Table 1). The soil surface under young lichen pine forest (T1) accumulates a plant waste layer several millimeters thick composed of yearly fallen leaves, needles, branches, twigs, bark. The poor-in-humus organic-mineral W-horizon is dark grey in its upper part due to humus and whitish in its lower part. The mineral profile part is poorly differentiated. At a depth of 43–70 cm, the soil is moist in contrast with its upper part with clear rare rusty spots. Under polytrichum pine forest, the soil surface is a thin (0.5 cm) dark W-horizon fastened by moss rhizoids. Then, there are We-subhorizons with whitish spots. Below 40 cm, there are bluish-grey and ocher spots. Accumulation of needles on the soil surface under dead-cover (pine straw) pine forest favors formation of a loose brownish Wo-litter represented by a raw-humus material composed of mixed organic residues of various decomposition degrees with mineral components. Its thickness averages 2.2 ± 0.4 (up to 3) cm. The litter is followed by grey-whitish Whi-subhorizons with dark-grey humus streaks, rusty-ocher spots and small newly formed concretions. Below 30–40 cm, sand is underlain by ocher-colored sandy loam with loam and rusty horizontal discontinuous interlayers. The sedge community hosts a 9.2 ± 1.4-cm-thick peat turf. Its upper part is loose, moist; the lower part is dense, moist, silted, with numerous roots and strongly decomposed plant remains. Under peat turf there is a strongly gley bluish-grey horizon, which turns into a brownish layer with bluish-grey and rusty spots. There are dark-grey tongues of mobile organic matter from the overlying organic horizon. Dividing into layers is clearly expressed along the whole soil profile. In its lower part, texture becomes heterogeneous: changes of loamy sand layers and sandy loams.

3.4. Soil Temperature and Moisture

The soils of lichen pine forests, both in the territory of the quarry (T1) and the background sites (BT1), suffer from a moisture deficiency. The soil moisture content during the summer period is less than 40% of the maximum water-holding capacity (MWHC). The soils of green moss pine (FT2) and polytrichum (T5) forests are well-moistured 30–80% of MWHC. In the soils under dead-cover (pine straw) (T2) and sphagnum (BT3) pine forests, soil-ground waters are observed at a depth of 20–40 cm in spring. In summer, the soil moisture content at T2 and BT3 is excessive due to the capillary rise up to 100% of MWHC. In the soil of sphagnum peatland (BT4) and sedge community (T3), soil-ground waters are high and are close to the soil surface for the practically whole vegetation period.
The soils of the quarry are characterized by a pronounced contrast temperature regime compared to the soils of the background sites. This is evidenced by the increase in the values of variation coefficients (Table 3). For both young and background soils, the rise in hydromorphism is accompanied with the fall in heating degree.

3.5. Soil Texture

The soils of the background sites, occupying automorphic relief positions (BT1, BT2), are composed of sands. Depending on the horizon, sand particles take 89.9–97.3%, silt 0.6–6.3% and clay 1.5–5.6%. The distribution of clay particles is of a distinct eluvial-illuvial character (Figure 2). Under semi-hydromorphic (BT3) and hydromorphic (BT4) conditions, the share of clay particles in mineral profile part increases to 6.8–9.4% as the share of sand decreases to 86.6–87.6%. In this regard, the soils at BT3 and BT4 are texturally characterized as loamy sand.
The soils of the quarries (T1, T5) occupying automorphic positions are texturally similar to the soils of the background sites (BT1, BT2). The content of sand, silt and clay particles in the mineral soil part are 91.0–97.7, 0.5–3.7 and 1.1–8.1%, respectively. Common for soils at T1 and T5 is an increase with depth in the ratio of clay particles; the maximum (4.6–8.1%) is found in the lower horizons (at a depth of 50–70 cm) (Figure 2). The soils at moist sites are characterized by a textural heterogeneity of soil profile. The upper part of T2 soil (down to 30 cm) is composed of sands (sand 91.0–94.7%; silt 1.5–7.0%; clay 3.8–6.2%) and the bottom of sandy loams (sand 76.2–79.7%; silt 10.0–10.8%; clay 10.3–13.0%). In T3 soil, the upper part (down to 30 cm) is composed of loamy sand (sand 75.9–84.3%; silt 6.8–10.6%; clay 8.9–13.5%) and the lower part of clay loam (sand 45.3%; silt 23.3%; clay 31.4%).

3.6. Acidity and Content of Some Biogenic Elements

The studied soils are acidic (Figure 3). The maximum acidity in the automorphic soils of the quarry is found for the lower part of the poorly-developed humus horizons with signs of podzolization, in the hydromorphic and semi-hydromorphic soils for horizons located under forest litter. The soils of the background sites are highly acidic compared to the soils of the quarry. Any soils tend to increase in acidity as moisture content rises.
The content of biogenic elements in soil profiles vary widely. The maximum concentrates in the organic horizons decrease downward the profile. Together with an increase in soil hydromorphism, the content of biogenic elements significantly increases both in the organic-mineral horizons and in the mineral profile part (Figure 4).

3.7. Profile Distribution of Al, Fe and Si Compounds

In the background soils, the distribution of total content of aluminum and iron compounds is of an eluvial–illuvial character (Figure 5). In the young soils, the upper soil part demonstrates some decrease in total content of Al and Fe against an increase in content of Si. In the lower profile part, the content of Fe and Al increases (Figure 5).
The observed eluvial–illuvial distribution of total content of Fe and Al compounds in the quarry soils is also confirmed by the change of content of Fe and Al oxalate-soluble and dithionite-soluble forms along the profile (Figure 6). In the soils of young lichen pine forest and polytrichum pine forest, the values of the Schwertmann’s criterion are 0.3–0.4. In the soil of the dead-cover pine forest, this value increases to 0.6, and in the sedge community to 0.9.

3.8. Stocks of Organic Matter, Carbon and Nitrogen

Together with the development of vegetation cover in the quarry, the young soils form organic horizons (forest litter). The organic matter stocks in the litter horizons of young soils are significantly lower than those in the background soils. In both cases, an exponential increase in organic matter stocks was observed (Figure 7): from 22.4 ± 11.9 (BT1) up to 694.0 ± 202.5 t ha−1 (BT4) in the background soils, from 1.3 ± 0.4 (T1) up to 72.4 ± 17.3 t ha−1 (T3) in the young soils.
The content of organic carbon and nitrogen in the initial substrate of the open pit is low (0.1% and 0.01%, respectively), the C/N ratio is about 10. In the soils of the open pit, the content of C and N is similar to that in organic horizons of the background soils but still does not reach it (Table 4). Down the profile, the C/N ratio decreases. The eluvial–illuvial distribution of C and N is typical for the background soils (BT2 and BT3). For the quarry soils and the soil of the background plot BT1, this is not the case. These soils demonstrate a decrease in content of C and N down the profile. This is because the quarry soils are young. In the soil of the lichen pine forest (BT1), this is associated with the enrichment of the upper horizons with organic carbon after fires.
The organic-mineral horizons of T1 soil are prominent through a low degree of decomposition of organic material. This is evidenced by a rather wide ratio of carbon to nitrogen (Table 4). In the series T1→T5→T2→T3, the soils increase in carbon and nitrogen content and decrease in the C/N ratio.
In the sequence of increasing hydromorphism in background and young soils, carbon stocks increase both in organogenic horizons and soil layers 0–20, 0–50, 0–100 cm thick (Table 5) Under lichen pine forests (T1 and BT1), stocks are minimal, they increase exponentially and reach maximum values in the bog soils. Exponential equations of the relationship of soil carbon content with different groups of plant associations are shown in Table 5. The Kruskal–Wallis and Wilcoxon tests showed the reliability of differences between groups of background soils under different plant communities.
In the quarry soils, the reserves are usually 2–5 times less than those in the background soils (Table 5). Differences between groups of young soils under different plant communities are also significant. In the semi-hydromorphic and hydromorphic soils at any quarry site, the carbon reserves in mineral part are much higher than those in the automorphic soils. The accumulation rate of C is low in the soil under young lichen pine forests 0.07 t ha−1 year−1. In the soil under young polytrichum pine forest, this index is 0.11 t ha−1 year−1. In the semi-hydromorphic and hydromorphic conditions of the quarry, the C sequestration rate significantly increases: in the soil of young dead-cover (pine straw) pine forest up to 0.38 t ha−1 year−1, in the soil of sedge community 0.58 t ha−1 year−1.

4. Discussion

4.1. Soil Profile Development

The investigations of the soil water–temperature regime and the species composition of plant communities confirm the difference in moisture conditions of both quarry sites and background sites. Along the chronosequance of increasing moisture in the moss-lichen and grass-dwarf shrub layers, plants change from xerophytes to mesophytes, to mesohygrophytes, to hygrophytes. Increasing favorable moisture conditions promotes the growth of the forest stand. Dense forest stand reduces the soil cover area. There is no forest stand in closed depressions with a high groundwater level. The study of the morphological soil properties showed the following. In psammozems formed under the automorphic conditions in lichen and moss pine forests, the thickness of the organogenic horizon is several millimeters by the 4–5th decade. This horizon is practically not separated from the underlying organic-mineral layer. In the upper mineral layers (up to 8–12 cm depth), the expressed whitish spots are observed, which probably indicate the occurrence of podzolization processes [8]. Illuvial processes of this stage of soil profile development are not morphologically expressed. In the lower layers, rusty spots and bundles indicate the possible periodic moisture stagnation and the behavior of redox processes.
It has to be noted that relatively few studies are concerned with primary soil formation in the taiga zone of the European part of Russia. According to Abakumov [8], the thickness of the forest floor, in soils formed on sand quarry dumps in automorphic conditions (European north-west of Russia) by the age of 30–43, is 5 cm, 2–5 cm in the eluvial (podzolic) E-horizons and 3–12 cm in the illuvial B-horizons. Morphological signs of podzolization have already been indicated in the first 10 years after the beginning of pedogenesis. Alexandrovskiy and Alexandrovskaya [42] reported that podzol profile development in the northern and middle taiga is the rather long process (up to 300 years). Therewith, during the process of primary succession, the A–C-profile is developed within several decades. The eluvial (podzolic) E-horizon begins to form before the illuvial B-horizon, which needs quantified iron compound accumulation. Morphological expression of the horizons increases during the succession process. Specifically, according to Alexandrovskiy and Alexandrovskaya [42], in the 110-year-old soil formed on sandy deposits of the Karelian Isthmus, the eluvial A1E-horizon was up to 5 cm thick and the upper profile part is differentiated into (A1E-B)-subhorizons 28 cm thick. In more southern regions, the pedogenesis in sandy deposits has its own unique particularities due to the more favorable bioclimatic conditions. In the case of Poland, regarding podzols developed on sand quarries, the forest floor was 1.8 cm thick [43] 25 years after the beginning of soil formation. In Estonia, the incipient E-horizon formed in the sandy soil profile up to 5 cm thick within 50 years; the (A1 + E + B)-profile was 28 cm thick [42].
Comparison of the obtained results with literature data allowed speaking about low rates of litter formation, eluvial and illuvial processes in soils formed during the first stages of succession under the automorphic conditions of the middle taiga of the European north-east of Russia. Under semi-hydromorphic conditions, there is active organic matter input from well-developed forest stand (dead-cover pine forest) and periodic waterlogging of the substrate specify complex of podzol and gley formation processes in the soil profile. The bleached Whi,e,g-horizon, with bluish color and ocher spots, is of 10 cm thick. The lower profile part is characterized by an ocher color and periodic water stagnation at the interface of different textured strata. Water stagnation increases in the oligotrothic peat soil (Dystric Fibric Histosols) even more, where underlying layers are clay loams in the lower part. The major pedogenic process is peat accumulation in both the T3-soil and the bog soils at the background sites. The rate of peat accumulation is up to 2 mm year−1, and is close to the rate of this process (1.2–2.6 mm year−1) in the soils of lowland and transitional moors [44]. During the peat formation, the stage of wetland mesotrophic vegetation community changes to the stage of oligotrophic plants with typical oligotrophic peat soils [45]; furthermore, the rate of peat accumulation decreases to several mm per year [46]. It is thought the formation process of organic horizons is inhibited under groundwater flooding during much of the year [17]. Gley formation processes are activated under hydromorphic conditions with stagnant moisture.

4.2. Changes in Soil Properties with Increasing Degree of Soil Hydromorphism

It is noted that the increase in acidity in the soils sand quarry and background areas with an increasing degree of soil hydromorphism is due to the activation of the formation of acidic compounds (low molecular weight acids, fulvic acids). Shamrikova et al. [47] highlight that the increase in soil moistening determines the accumulation of low molecular weight acids at large, containing the strongest aliphatic hydroxy acids (pKa < 4.0) and phenol carboxylic acids. This is made by an anaerobic environment, increasing reducing conditions and a short-term oxidation situation in soils [16].
The increase in the content of nutrient elements both in the organogenic horizons and in the mineral part of the profile of young and background soils occupying relief depressions is probably associated with a significant change in the plant community composition, with the modified texture of parent material, migration of water-soluble compounds with vertical and lateral flow and also their hydrogenic accumulation in the lower part of the profile at the boundary layer above the near-surface water table. The increase in the proportion of clay particles in the lower part of the profile of hydromorphic soils (T4, T5) is likely because of both the initial heterogeneity of the texture of parent material, and accumulation at the boundary layer above the near-surface water table. Other authors [17] also reported an increase in the content of clay particles caused by illuviation and accumulation processes with increasing moisture of disturbed lands.

4.3. Appearance of Podzolization and Gleization

In the profile of soils formed under automorphic conditions, the processes of podzolizing of up to the 4–5th decade of succession are not only morphologically signified, but chemically as well. In the upper soil layers, the low content of Al and Fe compounds in accordance with increasing the Si content indicate the first stages of podsolization as opposed to parent material. With an increasing degree of soil hydromorphism, the Al and Fe compounds accumulate in the lower layers characteristically for background soils. A similar picture was highlighted by the other researchers. Specifically, according to Abakumov et al. [48], in the AE-horizon of sand dump soils, some decrease in total Al and Fe content was already observed 25 years after the beginning of soil formation, and in 60-year-old soils, the intensity of podzolization increases.
The increasing contents of bulk composition, dithionite (Fdith) and oxalate (Feox, Alox) extractable forms, and the Schwertmann’s criterion indicate the gleization in semi-hydromorphic and hydromorphic soils opposed to well drained quarry soils. The appearance of the Fe-reducing zones occurs due to both periodic/permanent water saturation of soils and migration of the consecutive accumulating soil organic matter (SOM) down the profile during the plant community development [19,38]. The low clay content in the upper horizons of young soils with signs of podzolization and gleying confirms the beginning of podzol-forming processes.

4.4. >Changes in an Organic Carbon Stock

Published data shows soils of the background sites are in accordance with the soils of pine forests by the carbon stock. Specifically, according to Chestnykh et al. [49], in the forest floor horizons of automorphic podzolic soils in the middle taiga pine forests on the European part of Russia, the mean SOC accumulation is 17.2 ± 3.9 t ha−1. In the European north-east (the Komi Republic of Russia), in Albic Podzol, the mean carbon storage is 11.7 ± 0.5 t ha−1 in the O-horizon, 22.8 ± 0.7 t ha−1 at the 0–30 cm depth, 29.6 ± 0.8 t ha−1 for the 0–50 cm depth and 38.0 ± 0.9 t ha−1 at the 1–100 cm depth [50]. For the bog-podzolic soils (Gleyic Histic Podzols), in blueberry-sphagnum pine forests in middle taiga, SOC stocks increase in the litter up to 28.8–33.5 t ha−1 and up to 50.1–105.7 t ha−1 at the 0–50 cm depth [51]. In the podzols of Sweden, in the litter, the mean SOC content is 28 t ha−1, 82 for the 0–50 cm depth [52]. The authors highlight that hydrological conditions significantly affect the SOC stocks, which increased in the 0–50 cm depth from on average of 67 t ha−1 at drained sites to 97 t ha−1 at plots with slight moisture. Consequently, both according to our results and according to literature data, in the soils of background sites with the increasing degree of hydromorphism, the pool and variability of the SOM increase [50,52].
The particular regularities are also revealed under study of soils formed on the quarry site. There is an accumulation of clay particles with an increasing degree of hydromorphism. This confirms the opinion that depressions in the relief are the foci of clay [17]. The content of clay particles is one of the chief factors affecting the carbon accumulation process [43,52,53]. Carbon stocks in the mineral layers significantly grow due to the increase in the clay content in the profile of semi-hydromorphic and hydromorphic soils (both mature and young soils) opposed to soils of the automorphic positions.
In the chronosequence T1→…→T3, the C/N ratio narrows due to the modified nature of plant litter (while the share of grasses increase). Primarily, the N-content in lichens is about 2 times lower than in sedges [54]. An increase in the degree of decomposition and humification of plant residues is an additional factor [55,56].

4.5. Carbon Accumulation Rate

Carbon accumulation rate depends on the structure and composition of the plant community as the initial source of organic matter. According to the literature, total litter mass in the middle taiga pine forests of the Komi Republic in the ecological sequence is minimal in lichen pine forests 0.91, maximum in bilberry pine forests 4.49–4.59 and decreasing in bilberry-sphagnum pine forests to 3.74 t ha−1. The share of aboveground plant litter increases with increasing soil moisture: 24% in lichen pine forests, 17–38% in blueberry pine forests and up to 52% in sphagnum pine forests [57,58]. Thus, the obtained data on low carbon stocks in soils of background lichen pine forests, is due to the insignificant input of dead plant mass. The deposition of a significant amount of organic carbon in sphagnum pine forests is associated with the specifics of the temperature and water regimes of hydromorphic soils (gleyic peat podzols), specifically, with the organic matter conservation under conditions of decreasing temperature, increasing moisture, and oxygen deficiency as factors increasing the activity of soil microflora [59,60,61]. Conservation processes are revealed more in oligotrophic bog soils.
In quarry young soils, the organic matter accumulation process is characterized by similar patterns of changes in water and temperature regimes and organic matter accumulation in the sequence along increasing hydromorphism. The minimum rate of carbon accumulation in the T1-soil (lichen pine forest) is explained by the weak formation of the tree layer and an insignificant amount of plant residues entering the soil surface < 5% of total mass [58]. The maximum value of carbon accumulation rate observed for T3-soil (sedge-community) is associated with a large amount of incoming plant material as remains of mosses and sedges (the aboveground portion of sedges dies annually), and the organic matter conservation under conditions of low biological activity. An additional source of organic carbon can be the entering of organic compounds with lateral and subsurface flow and stabilization as a result of co-deposition with mineral components coming from high parts of the quarry, its sides and surroundings [11,29,62].
Our own results on the carbon accumulation rate in the automorphic soils are consistent with the data obtained for other regions. During primary soil formation in the automorphic positions on disturbed areas, in the middle taiga subzone of the Urals, the carbon sequestration rate, in the first decades of the primary succession, is 0.12–0.19 t ha−1 year−1 at the 0–20 cm depth and 0.3–0.7 t ha−1 year−1 in the southern taiga zone [7].
The Corg accumulation is faster under the bioclimatic conditions of Poland (0.7–5.3 t ha−1 year−1) [9] and in Ohio state of US (up to 3 t ha−1 year−1) [63]. In the northern US states, the carbon deponation rate in the soils of disturbed areas is lower and similar to results for the taiga zone of Russia. Specifically, in the coal mining region of North Dakota (USA), the Corg accumulation was 0.13 t ha−1 year−1 [64]; in the mining district of Montana (USA) 0.26 t ha−1 year−1 [65]. Both during anthropogenic primary successions and natural successions, the soil carbon deposition rates are similar. Consequently, in the first 100 years of primary succession of Queets River floodplain overgrowing with vegetation (WA, USA), the indicator for the upper 20 cm soil layer was 0.36 t ha−1 year−1 [11]. According to the data obtained from our previous research [12], the Corg accumulation rate was 0.16 t ha−1 year−1 in automorphic soils formed on sandy loam fluvioglacial deposits during the managed succession (after reforestation of quarries), which is 2 times higher than the Corg accumulation rate (0.07 t ha−1 year−1) in the soil under the developing lichen pine forests on ancient alluvial sandy deposits.

5. Conclusions

It was determined that under the bioclimatic conditions of the taiga zone of the European north-east of Russia (the Komi Republic), the processes of primary pedogenesis on nutrient-poor ancient alluvial sands of pine forest terraces are specified by the composition features of self-organized vegetation communities and by the soil moisture conditions (degree of soil hydromorphism). The acidity, the share of clay particles (less than 0.001 mm in diameter) and the amount of biophilic elements (C, N, Ca, P, K) increases with increasing moisture content, in all studied soils. The study revealed the major soil-forming processes on ancient alluvial sands are litter formation and podzolization under dry conditions; litter formation, gleization and concretion formation under the conditions of increased soil moisture, peat accumulation and gleization under waterlogged soil conditions during the 4–5 decades after the beginning of pedogenesis. The processes of eluviation and illuviation (the beginning of podzolization) are indicated by morphological features (whitish spots in the lower part of the humus-accumulative horizon and in the upper mineral layer), and by the redistribution of Si, Fe, Al compounds and clay. The gleization processes are confirmed by: occurrance of bluish and ocher toning in soil profiles, an increasing Schwertmann’s criterion, and the presence of Fe-Mn-neoformations. In the sequence along increasing moisture of both quarry soils and background soils, due to the increasing thickness of organogenic horizons, soil organic carbon stocks increase. Upon self-overgrow of sandy substrates under conditions of moisture deficiency, organic carbon accumulation rate in soils is sharply damped. Waterlogging of soils formed on ancient alluvial sands promotes an increase in the rate of SOC accumulation in their profile due to the conservation of plant material in the form of peat. The processes of primary pedogenesis on ancient alluvial sands occur according to the climatic conditions of the taiga zone. The basic characteristics of young soils developing on quarry sites during the soil-forming process aim for the properties of soils on the background sites, but are below them per the investigation period.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.A.L., E.G.K. and E.M.L.; investigation, I.A.L., S.V.D., Y.V.K. and E.G.K.; methodology, I.A.L., S.V.D., E.G.K. and E.M.L.; project administration, I.A.L., E.G.K. and E.M.L.; writing—original draft, I.A.L.; writing—review and editing, I.A.L., S.V.D., Y.V.K., E.G.K., O.V.S. and E.M.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The study was performed as a state assignment for the Institute of Biology of Komi Science Centre of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences №1021051101421-1-1.6.19 «Cryogenesis as a factor of soil formation and evolution in arctic and boreal ecosystems of the European Northeast under current anthropogenic impacts, global and regional climatic trends».

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available upon request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Forests 13 00230 g001 550
Figure 1. A series of soil pits show the soils of quarry site and background site. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 1. A series of soil pits show the soils of quarry site and background site. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Forests 13 00230 g001
Forests 13 00230 g002 550
Figure 2. Distribution of clay particles in background soils (a), and soils formed on the quarry’s territory (b), along with the hydromorphism increase. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 2. Distribution of clay particles in background soils (a), and soils formed on the quarry’s territory (b), along with the hydromorphism increase. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
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Forests 13 00230 g003 550
Figure 3. The profile distribution of pHH2O and pHKCl values in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 3. The profile distribution of pHH2O and pHKCl values in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
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Forests 13 00230 g004 550
Figure 4. The profile distribution of total content of biogenic elements Ca, K, and P in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 4. The profile distribution of total content of biogenic elements Ca, K, and P in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
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Forests 13 00230 g005 550
Figure 5. The profile distribution of total content of Si, Al and Fe in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 5. The profile distribution of total content of Si, Al and Fe in the background and quarry soils. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
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Forests 13 00230 g006 550
Figure 6. The profile distribution of 1—Fedith, %, 2—Feox, %, 3—Alox, % contents and 4—the Schwertmann’s criterion values in the quarry soils: (a) psammozem under lichen pine forest, (b) psammozem under sedge community.
Figure 6. The profile distribution of 1—Fedith, %, 2—Feox, %, 3—Alox, % contents and 4—the Schwertmann’s criterion values in the quarry soils: (a) psammozem under lichen pine forest, (b) psammozem under sedge community.
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Forests 13 00230 g007 550
Figure 7. The stocks of organic matter in organic soil horizons: (a) background soils, and (b) quarry soils, t ha−1. The error bars represent standard deviation. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Figure 7. The stocks of organic matter in organic soil horizons: (a) background soils, and (b) quarry soils, t ha−1. The error bars represent standard deviation. All abbreviations are explained at Table 1.
Forests 13 00230 g007
Table
Table 1. Description of the study objects.
Table 1. Description of the study objects.
Site, Altitude, m a.s.l.Vegetation CommunitySoil NameHorizonSoil Horizon Color by Munsell System
RSCWRBRSC/WRB (Depth, cm)
Quarry site
T1, 83–84Young lichen pine forest (Sylvestri Pinetum miti cladinosum)Podzolized gleyic humus psammozemArenosols (Nechic, Stagnic)W1/Oi(0–0.2)–W2/Ch(0.2–2)–We/Ch(2–10)–C˙˙/C(10–40)–C˙˙g/Cg(40–70)10YR5/1(5/2, 8/1)–10YR5/3–
10YR6/4–10YR6/4–10YR 6/6
T5, 82–83Polytrichum pine forest (Pinetum nutansi pohlioso-polytrichosum)Humus podzolized gleyic psammozemArenosols (Nechic, Stagnic)W/Oi(0–0.5)–W1e/Ch(0.5–2)– W2e/Ch(2–4)–W3e/Ch(4–12)– C˙˙/C(12–40)–C˙˙g/Cg(40–50)–C˙˙g/Cg(50–70)10YR6/4–10YR6/4–10YR6/6–10YR5/4–10YR6/4–10 YR6/6–10YR5/4
T2, 82Dead-cover (pine straw) pine forest (Pinetum communi polytrichosum)Raw-humus humus-infiltrated podzolized gleyic humus psammozemArenosols (Nechic, Stagnic)Wao/Oi(0–3)–W1hi,e,g/Chg(3–5)– W2hi,e,g/Chg(5–10)–C˙˙g/Cg(10–30)–D1g/Cgs(30–40)–D2g/Cgs(40–50)10YR2/1–10YR5/1–10YR6/3–10YR6/4–10YR5/6–
10YR4/6
T3, 80–81Sedge community (Caricoso-exannulatae warnstorfiosum)Silty-mucky humus-infiltrated gley psammozemFolic Gleyic ArenosolsTmr/H(0–7(10)–Ghi/Chg(7(10)–12)–G(12–18)–Cg/Cg(12(18)–30)–Dg/Cg(30–50).10YR3/3–10YR6/4–10YR5/6–10YR5/4
Background site
BT1, 100Lichen pine forest (Pinetum cladinosum)Iron-illuvial gleyic podzolStagnic Albic Rustic Podzols (Arenic)O/Oi(0–2)–E/E(2–11)–BF/Bs(11–30)–B/B(30–52)–Bg/Bgs(52–100)–BCg/Cg(100–115)2.5Y3/1–2.5Y5/2–2.5Y6/4–2.5Y6/4–2.5Y7/3–2.5Y6/3
BT2, 90–95Bilberry-green moss pine forest (Pinetum myrtilloso-hylocomiosum)Iron-illuvial tonguing -gleyic podzolGlossic Stagnic Albic Rustic Podzols (Arenic)O/Oi(0–3(4))–E/E(3(4)-6(7))–BE/B(6(7)-15)–BFy/Bs(15–27)–By/B(27–59)–Bg/Bg(59–83)–BCg/Cg(83–110)10YR4/2–10YR7/1–10YR6/4–10YR6/6–10YR6/4–
10YR7/2–10YR7/2
BT3, 85Sedge-sphagnum pine forest (Pinetum globulari caricoso-sphagnosum)Mineral-peat gleyic peat-podzolGleyic Histic Podzols (Arenic)O/Oi(0–3(4))–T/Hi(3(4)-10(12))–Tmr/He(10(12)-18(20))–Eg/Eg(20–34)–BFg/Bsg(34–45)–G/Cr(45–70)2.5Y6/3–2.5Y3/3(4/3,5/3)–2.5Y3/2(3/3,4/3)–2.5Y5/1–2.5Y7/2–10 YR5/4–2.5Y 7/4
BT4, 80Sphagnum peatland (Lasiocarpi Caricoso-fallaci sphagnosum)Oligotrophic peat soilDystric Fibric HistosolsTO1/Oi(0–20)–TO2/He(20–50)–TT/Ha(50–85)–DGhi/Crh(85–100)-DG/Cr(100–120)2.5Y7/4–2.5Y5/3(6/3)–2.5Y4/3(5/3,6/3)–2.5Y4/3–2.5Y5/3
The Munsell System of Color Notation is given for air-dried soil samples.
Table
Table 2. Some characterization values for plant communities from the quarry and background sites.
Table 2. Some characterization values for plant communities from the quarry and background sites.
Site, №Tree StandProjective Cover of Layer, %Aboveground Phytomass, t ha−1
Compo-sitionCrown DensityDensity, Thous. Units ha−1Height, mDiameter, cmHDMLDwarf ShrubsHerbsMossesLichens
Background site
BT110P0.51.412125700.04 ± 0.010.00 ± 0.000.34 ± 0.163.08 ± 0.70
BT210P0.62.4151540950.61 ± 0.090.03 ± 0.012.56 ± 0.630.00 ± 0.00
BT310P + B0.43.0121230950.44 ± 0.250.22 ± 0.073.50 ± 0.20–
BT4–––––301000.11 ± 0.050.40 ± 0.075.30 ± 0.130–
Quarry site
T110P<0.10.552.74.91800.00 ± 0.000.06 ± 0.011.12 ± 0.442.20 ± 0.69
T510P0.32.43.33.35800.01 ± 0.010.16 ± 0.041.54 ± 0.360.08 ± 0.04
T29P1B + Asp + Alder0.88.97.46.45200.06 ± 0.020.05 ± 0.020.09 ± 0.01–
T3–––––6040–1.3 ± 0.430.46 ± 0.16–
HD—herbaceous-dwarf shrub layer, ML—mossy-lichen layer.
Table
Table 3. Mean summer temperatures (°C) and their variation coefficients (%) in background and quarry soils.
Table 3. Mean summer temperatures (°C) and their variation coefficients (%) in background and quarry soils.
Depth, cmBackground SitesQuarry Sites
BT1BT2BT3T1T5T2
120.8 ± 4.117.3 ± 2.617.1 ± 2.226.9 ± 5.422.9 ± 3.317.1 ± 1.9
39.129.825.139.828.521.9
516.9 ± 1.814.9 ± 1.513.4 ± 0.823.0 ± 3.320.5 ± 2.915.3 ± 1.2
21.019.811.729.028.116.3
1515.0 ± 1.313.8 ± 0.912.7 ± 0.520.4 ± 2.718.2 ± 2.214.6 ± 1.1
17.813.68.326.223.915.1
2514.4 ± 1.312.9 ± 0.712.3 ± 0.318.5 ± 2.017.6 ± 2.014.3 ± 1.0
18.411.05.022.022.313.5
3513.7 ± 1.012.4 ± 0.6–17.6 ± 1.817.3 ± 1.7–
14.29.220.020.0
The numerator is the arithmetic mean (n = 4) ± standard error; the nominator is the variation coefficient; line—not determined.
Table
Table 4. The mean content (X ± σ) of carbon and nitrogen and the C/N ratio in profiles of the background and young soils.
Table 4. The mean content (X ± σ) of carbon and nitrogen and the C/N ratio in profiles of the background and young soils.
HorizonC, %N, %C/NHorizonC, %N, %C/NHorizonC, %N, %C/NHorizonC, %N, %C/N
Background lichen pine forests (n = 5)
Iron-illuvial podzols		Background green moss
pine forests (n = 3)
Iron-iluvial podzols		Background sphagnum pine forests (n = 5) Peat gley podzolsBackground peatlands (n = 4)
Oligotrophic peat soils
O36.6 ± 9.450.864 ± 0.24442.4O44.37 ± 4.751.187 ± 0.25037.4O44.41 ± 3.281.260 ± 0.58035.2TO143.35 ± 2.380.945 ± 0.23245.9
E0.73 ± 0.410.024 ± 0.01230.2E0.21 ± 0.130.013 ± 0.00516.4T36.05 ± 5.291.075 ± 0.24733.5TO247.03 ± 2.981.708 ± 0.62427.5
BF0.42 ± 0.100.023 ± 0.00718.0BFy0.47 ± 0.160.028 ± 0.00916.8Eg0.28 ± 0.180.021 ± 0.01817.1TT 48.60 ± 8.212.093 ± 0.43823.2
Bg0.06 ± 0.020.006 ± 0.00210.4Bg0.14 ± 0.070.015 ± 0.0089.3BFg0.98 ± 0.590.058 ± 0.01615.7DGhi 8.67 ± 3.520.337 ± 0.12725.5
BC0.03 ± 0.010.003 ± 0.0038.6BCg0.14 ± 0.060.015 ± 0.0079.1G0.41 ± 0.200.025 ± 0.00016.2DG 0.48 ± 0.150.030 ± 0.22016.2
Young lichen pine forests (n = 2)
Humus psammozems		Young polytrichum pine forests (n = 3)
Humus psammozems		Young dead-cover (pine straw) pine forests (n = 3)
Humus psammozems		Sedge communities (n = 3)
Gley psammozems
W124.60 ± 8.320.467 ± 0.18152.7W16.63 ± 4.910.450 ± 0.24237.0Wao139.55 ± 7.571.100 ± 0.49536.0Tmr31.3 ± 7.431.530 ± 0.75020.5
W20.66 ± 0.220.023 ± 0.00228.6W1e0.57 ± 0.130.028 ± 0.00520.5Wao219.07 ± 9.420.653 ± 0.31429.2Ghi1.630.0918.1
We0.12 ± 0.050.007 ± 0.00417.1W2e0.17 ± 0.120.010 ± 0.00916.3Whi,e,g1.12 ± 0.300.054 ± 0.02120.7G0.18 ± 0.070.013 ± 0.00413.8
C˙˙0.04 ± 0.020.002 ± 0.00116.6C˙˙0.07 ± 0.020.006 ± 0.00412.1C˙˙g0.15 ± 0.060.014 ± 0.00511.0C˙˙g0.13 ± 0.130.013 ± 0.00510.5
C˙˙g0.03 ± 0.010.003 ± 0.0008.3C˙˙g0.04 ± 0.020.004 ± 0.00310.7D0.22 ± 0.060.020 ± 0.00210.7Dg0.18 ± 0.090.019 ± 0.0019.5
Here and in Table 5: X—the arithmetic mean of element’s content; under line: ±σ—standard deviation; n—number of samples; line—not determined.
Table
Table 5. Mean stocks (X ± σ) of organic carbon in the background and quarry soils, t ha−1; significance of differences (the Kruskal–Wallis test).
Table 5. Mean stocks (X ± σ) of organic carbon in the background and quarry soils, t ha−1; significance of differences (the Kruskal–Wallis test).
Plant CommunityStocks in Layer, t ha−1
Organic/
Organic-Mineral Soil Horizon		0–20 cm0–50 cm0–100 cm
Background sites
Lichen pine forests (n = 5)7.3 ± 1.918.7 ± 5.124.2 ± 7.527.7 ± 7.8
Green-moss pine forests (n = 3)20.8 ± 6.127.1 ± 2.438.4 ± 9.150.6 ± 14.6
Sphagnum pine forests (n = 5)44.7 ± 10.946.1 ± 9.473.0 ± 15.0103.0 ± 21.5
Peatlands (n = 4)323.8 ± 95.354.2 ± 1.2168.4 ± 28.7398.5 ± 129.9
Regression equationy = 1.8502e1.214xY = 13.223e0.3724xy = 11.556e0.6462xy = 9.8767e0.8706x
R²0.95690.96520.98350.9608
H14.912.714.414.6
p0.002 *0.005 *0.002 *0.002 *
Quarry sites
Young lichen pine forest (n = 3)0.64 ± 0.24.5 ± 0.75.5 ± 0.3−
Young polytrichum pine forest (n = 3)1.8 ± 0.45.2 ± 1.27.4 ± 2.1−
Young dead-cover (pine straw) pine forest (n = 3)8.2 ± 3.016.1 ± 2.525.8 ± 2.8−
Sedge community (n = 3)21.9 ± 1.525.2 ± 1.232.7 ± 4.0−
Regression equationy = 0.1835e1.2115xy = 2.0442e0.6298xy = 2.6164e0.6597x−
R²R² = 0.9929R² = 0.9245R² = 0.9182−
H10.410,410,4−
p0.016 *0.016 *0.016 *−
R²—approximation significance value; H—the Kruskal–Wallis criterion; p—importance level; *—differences are statistically relevant when p ≤ 0.05.
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Likhanova, I.A.; Deneva, S.V.; Kholopov, Y.V.; Kuznetsova, E.G.; Shakhtarova, O.V.; Lapteva, E.M. The Effect of Hydromorphism on Soils and Soil Organic Matter during the Primary Succession Processes of Forest Vegetation on Ancient Alluvial Sands of the European North-East of Russia. Forests 2022, 13, 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020230

AMA Style

Likhanova IA, Deneva SV, Kholopov YV, Kuznetsova EG, Shakhtarova OV, Lapteva EM. The Effect of Hydromorphism on Soils and Soil Organic Matter during the Primary Succession Processes of Forest Vegetation on Ancient Alluvial Sands of the European North-East of Russia. Forests. 2022; 13(2):230. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020230

Chicago/Turabian Style

Likhanova, Irina A., Svetlana V. Deneva, Yuriy V. Kholopov, Elena G. Kuznetsova, Olga V. Shakhtarova, and Elena M. Lapteva. 2022. "The Effect of Hydromorphism on Soils and Soil Organic Matter during the Primary Succession Processes of Forest Vegetation on Ancient Alluvial Sands of the European North-East of Russia" Forests 13, no. 2: 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020230

APA Style

Likhanova, I. A., Deneva, S. V., Kholopov, Y. V., Kuznetsova, E. G., Shakhtarova, O. V., & Lapteva, E. M. (2022). The Effect of Hydromorphism on Soils and Soil Organic Matter during the Primary Succession Processes of Forest Vegetation on Ancient Alluvial Sands of the European North-East of Russia. Forests, 13(2), 230. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020230

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