Previous Article in Journal
Carbon Sequestration Characteristics of Typical Sand-Fixing Plantations in the Shiyang River Basin of Northwest China
Previous Article in Special Issue
Thermal–Acoustic Interaction Effects on Physiological and Psychological Measures in Urban Forests: A Laboratory Study
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Forests
Volume 15
Issue 9
10.3390/f15091549
forests-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of Exposure to 2D Video of Forest Environment with Natural Forest Sound on Psychological Well-Being of Healthy Young Adults

by
Emilia Janeczko
1,
Małgorzata Woźnicka
1,
Wojciech Kędziora
2,
Krzysztof Janeczko
2,
Katarzyna Śmietańska
3,
Piotr Podziewski
3 and
Jarosław Górski
3,*
1
Department of Forest Utilization, Institute of Forest Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
2
Department of Forest Management Planning, Dendrometry and Forest Economics, Institute of Forest Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
3
Department of Mechanical Processing of Wood, Institute of Wood Sciences and Furniture, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Forests 2024, 15(9), 1549; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091549
Submission received: 16 July 2024 / Revised: 22 August 2024 / Accepted: 26 August 2024 / Published: 2 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soundscape in Urban Forests - 2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background and Objectives: In recent years, there has been a significant increase in interest in the health benefits of contact with nature. The theoretical and practical aspects of this issue are constantly being investigated. It is worth noting, however, that there is a large group of people for whom the only available form of contact with nature can only be through images (the view outside the window, photos and films about nature), recorded sounds of nature or descriptions of nature. Research indicating how much exposure to nature in the dimension of virtual reality achieves improvements in well-being, mood and vitality is therefore urgently needed. Material and Methods: The main goal of the experiment was to examine whether watching a 20-min 2D video of forest environment or reading a textbook on forest knowledge for 20 min would bring any psychological benefits. The order of both exposures was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect. A group of 16 volunteers, students of Warsaw University of Life Sciences, took part in the experiment. The psychological tests before and after each of the two parts of the experiment (viewing a picture with sound and reading a book) were established using five questionnaires: Profile of Mood State (POMS); Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS); Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS); Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS) and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). Results: As a result of the analyses, a 20-min viewing of a 2D video of a forest with natural sounds of nature was shown to have a positive effect on the psychological relaxation of the subjects in the form of an increase in restorativeness and vitality in the participants of the experiment, as well as a greater decrease in negative feelings, tension and anger than when reading a forest-themed book. Watching a video of a landscape can reduce tension and anger levels significantly, which can be an important guideline in relation to the interior design of public spaces and the protection of employees from the adverse effects of psychosocial working conditions, as well as the desire to stabilize anger and maintain emotional stability in everyday life.

1. Introduction

“Forest therapy” and “forest bathing” are nature-based practices to promote mental health, but they differ from each other in some respects [1]. Forest bathing involves informal immersion in a natural forest environment to relax. Meanwhile, forest therapy is a more specific therapeutic technique that requires the participation of a qualified therapist who will adapt the course of the therapy session to the psychological needs of a specific patient. Both of these techniques are becoming more and more popular, especially in Asia. In recent years, there have been many publications on the positive influence of nature on human health [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11]. Moreover there are increasing scientific reports in this area from the USA and the EU [12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19]. As a result, it has already been established that forest therapy and forest bathing can be considered as relaxation techniques that lead to rest and regeneration of the human nervous system [12,13,14,20,21,22]. Contact with nature is believed to have positive effects on people’s mental and physical health, leading to a reduction in stress [20,23,24,25,26,27], improving cardiovascular function [2,6,26,28], strengthening the immune system [26,29,30,31,32] and alleviating symptoms of chronic diseases such as anxiety, depression and insomnia [26,33,34,35].
Most research to date on the effects of forest bathing on human health and well-being has focused on short-term and low-intensity physical activities in the real natural world [6,10,15,36]. However, is it really only real-world contact with nature, in particular with the forest, that allows for health benefits? Already several works indicate that also virtual contact with nature allows one to regenerate and feel better. For example, it has been shown that significant mental benefits can come from viewing green parkland outside the window of a hospital room [37], experiencing artificially produced or recorded images and sounds of nature [38] or watching visually and sonically appealing videos [39]. Moran et al. [40] showed that in prisons where inmates had cells overlooking green spaces self-harm was less frequent and levels of violence were lower. Also, Jewkes, Moran and Turner [41] suggested that ‘sound, smells, and the view of water played a key role in alleviating psychological oppression in confinement’ in a seaside prison. Malenbaum et al. [42] found that light, nature and video or virtual reality (VR) could be beneficial in pain control.
The subject of these aforementioned studies was the effect of virtual nature on human well-being and health. There are few studies [43,44] that tested the relevance of virtual forest bathing for psychological benefits. A study by Chan et al. [44] found that virtual forest walks reduced negative affect and lowered stress levels as measured by heart rate. White et al. [43] found that virtual forest therapy can alleviate stress in healthy people, can also be successfully used to improve individual emotions and has positive effects on brain updating function. However, just as in the case of forest bathing conducted in a real forest, there are still a lot of uncertainties regarding the therapeutic properties of individual features and attributes of the forest landscape with regard to virtual forest contact. Not every forest provides high health benefits [16,45]. And, arguably similarly, not every form of virtual contact with the forest guarantees the same degree of well-being. This contact can take different forms, e.g., viewing photos of nature, watching a video, listening to the sounds of nature, reading or listening to books on nature, walking in an artificial, imitation nature setting and many others. Which of these approaches achieves the most health benefits? Research in this area is urgently needed, as there is a large group of people who are deprived of opportunities for contact with nature, such as nursing home residents, patients in hospitals and people in closed prisons.
Virtual forest environments provide an opportunity for individuals who are unable to frequently visit a real forest to enjoy the beneficial effects of forest landscapes [46]. Incorporating virtual forest therapy programs into the daily lives of such individuals could have positive social consequences in terms of alleviating ailments, accelerating recovery and improving rehabilitation. Virtual reality technology could, as noted by Wang et al. [47], be used in the treatment of acrophobia, spider phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, high-functioning autism, schizophrenia, etc. In addition to this, the use of virtual technology in forest therapy can be important in the fight for young people’s mental health. VR is particularly attractive to young people because of its cutting-edge technology and immersive experiences. With the development of mobile terminal technology, virtual videos and apps are now conveniently available. And while many researchers [48,49] caution that excessive use of electronics and constant access to electronic media is detrimental to health, it is important to note that this damage is primarily related to lack of exercise and insufficient physical activity and unhealthy diet [50]. According to Stiglic and Viner [50], much of the research to date on the dangers of widespread access to electronic and digital media has focused on the amount of time spent in front of a screen, rather than examining the contexts of screen use and content viewed. Watching virtual nature videos can be helpful for people to appreciate nature in an indoor environment [47].
The present study on which this article is based is consistent with the research trend presented above. The main goal of the experiment was to examine whether watching a 20-min 2D video of a forest environment with natural forest sounds or reading a textbook on forest knowledge (also for 20 min) may have an impact on the psychological well-being of healthy young adults. This means that two types of exposure were used. The first one consisted of watching an audio film presenting a natural forest (which directly activated the sense of sight and hearing). This exposure was therefore intended to be a substitute for a real trip to the forest. The second exposure consisted of reading a fragment of a standard forestry textbook. Figuratively speaking, it was also forest exposure, but not exposure to the natural sight and sound of the forest but to knowledge about the forest. In other words, the first exposure directly engaged the senses and naturally encouraged contemplation of the forest, while the second was also related to the forest but directly engaged only the intellect.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The participants (subjects) of the experiment were 16 students of Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS) aged 20–24 years who had completed secondary school and were not engaged in regular work. Each of them was a volunteer who responded to an invitation to the general student population to participate in this study. None of them had visible symptoms of any mood disorders. All of them were of Polish nationality. The male to female ratio was 1:1. Participants were made aware of the procedures and methods of this study. Participants were not allowed to use mobile phones, drink alcoholic or caffeinated beverages or smoke cigarettes. During the laboratory study, each volunteer was alone with the researcher in one room, without verbal contact. The psychological questionnaires used in this study were anonymous. Immediately after participants completed the forms, they were checked for completeness by the study supervisors. All actions taken during this study were under the ethical standards of the Polish Committee for Ethics in Science and the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki, as amended.

2.2. Study Sites

The field survey was conducted in March 2023 (15–27 March 2023) in a room in the building on the WULS campus in Warsaw. The room was 20 m2 in size, furnished with a table and chair and a large screen onto which a film was projected using an EPSON CO-FH02 projector (Epson America, Inc. 3131 Katella Avenue, Los Alamitos, CA 90720, USA). There were no decorations on the walls, and the window was darkened as much as possible during the experiment to prevent sunlight from reaching the room. A small lamp on the table allowed the researchers to read a text from an academic textbook of their choice and to provide written answers to questions from psychological test questionnaires. This research was conducted in the late afternoon when the corridors of the building were free of the noise generated by students awaiting classes. We created conditions that guaranteed quiet and promoted relaxation.

2.3. Procedure

The experiment was conducted on regular weekdays from 5 p.m. onwards. Two volunteers were invited to participate each day. The maximum time planned for the experiment with each volunteer was 1 h. The experiment consisted of three parts.
The first part consisted of a free conversation with the volunteer. The aim was to familiarize the participants with the conditions in the room. During the interview, the procedure of the experiment was presented. The volunteers consented to their participation in the experiment and accepted that the researcher would also be present in the room during the experiment. The researcher’s position was out of sight of the volunteer. Both volunteers and researchers did not move or make noise during the experiment.
In the second part, each participant was asked to answer the questions on the psychological test questionnaires (described below). The next step was to provide participants with academic textbooks with a marked text for self-study. The text dealt with forest management issues. As instructed, after the time allotted for reading the text (20 min) had elapsed, participants responded to several questions on the psychological test questionnaires.
The third part of the experiment involved the subjects sitting in the same place and watching a video depicting the interior of a forest stand in the leafless phase for 20 min. We decided that the video exposure time and the time spent reading the text would each be 20 min. We believe that this time is entirely sufficient to be able to capture the variability of people’s mood and well-being. Many other studies on the therapeutic properties of the environment have relied on short recreational programs, with exposure lasting 15–20 min [9,16,45,51]. The video depicted the interior of a forest stand in the leafless phase—Figure 1. The species composition is dominated by oak trees (70%) aged 64 years, accompanied by pine (20%) and birch (10%). The undergrowth contains hornbeam, oak and linden. Species mixing is grouped, stand density is moderate and the cover is green (www.bdl.lasy.gov.pl/mapy, accessed on 4 July 2024). The habitat type of the forest is fresh forest. On the day the recording was made, relative humidity was 33%–62%, average cloud cover was 5.3 (on the octane scale), and there was no rainfall. The video shows the forest as seen through the eyes of a standing adult (eye level at 1.60 m). The shot did not change—the same part of the forest was still present in the video, only the sounds of nature changed. It was prepared with an iPhone 12 Pro Max mobile phone and was taken in January 2023 in the Kabaty Forest, the largest forest in Warsaw, covering over 900 ha. Noise and sunlight levels were controlled. Sound and light levels were also measured with an iPhone 12 using the LUX Light Meter Pro 2.1.1 (developer: Marina Polyanskaya, Process Engineer at Lam Research, Morgan Hill, California, USA) and Sound Level Analyzer Lite 7.0 (deveper: TOON, LLC., Nishinari-ku, Osaka-city, Osaka, Japan) apps. Similar apps have been used in other studies [2,52] and meet standards comparable to professional laboratory equipment for sound analysis. Sound and light were measured at each exposure point before, during and immediately after the film was recorded. The average sound level measured with the sound level meter amounted to 38.4 ÷ 49.9 dB. The mean light intensities in the forest amounted to 406 ÷ 688 lx.
A very important element of the experimental procedure was the fact that the order of both exposures (the second part and the third part) was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect.
The final stage of the experiment involved collecting data on the emotional state of the participants after watching the video. This stage was performed using the same psychological tests. Before leaving the room, the volunteers were asked to answer the questions included in each psychological test. The simplified scheme of the procedure is shown in Figure 2. The diagram ignores the fact that the order of both exposures (“Forest Self-Education” and “Virtual Forest Exposure”) was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect.

2.4. Measurements

Psychological studies were conducted using the following standard and frequently used questionnaires:
  • Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The authors of the questionnaire were D. Watson and L.A. Clark, and the Polish adaptation was made by Brzozowski [53]. The test includes 20 items about positive (10 items) and negative (10 items) affects and uses a standard five-point Likert scale. The PANAS questionnaire determines separately the level of positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). Using pre- and post-exposure data, the favorable changes in positive (ΔPA = PAPOST − PAPRE) and negative affect (ΔNA = NAPRE − NAPOST) were determined. This means that, in the case of a deterioration in mood, these favorable changes (ΔPA and/or ΔNA) can have negative values.
  • Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS). The author of the questionnaire was Korpela [21], and the Polish adaptation was made by Bielinis et al. [36]. The test includes six items and uses a standard seven-point Likert scale. Using pre- and post-exposure data, the favorable changes in mental restoration were determined (ΔROS = ROSPOST − ROSPRE). This means that in the case of a deterioration in mood, this favorable change (ΔROS) can have a negative value.
  • Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS). The authors of the questionnaire were R. M. Ryanand and C. Frederick. The test includes four items and uses a standard seven-point Likert scale. Using pre- and post-exposure data the favorable changes in a subjective feeling of vitality were determined (ΔSVS = SVSPOST − SVSPRE). This means that, in the case of a deterioration in mood, this favorable change (ΔSVS) can have a negative value.
  • Profile of Mood States (POMS). The authors of the questionnaire were D.M. McNair, M. Lorr and L. F. Droppleman, and the Polish adaptation was made by Dudek and Koniarek [54]. The test includes 65 items and uses a standard five-point Likert scale. Based on the respondent’s answers, the following six mood dimensions can be determined: vigor (V), depression (D), tension (T), fatigue (F), confusion (C) and anger (A). Using pre- and post-exposure data, the favorable changes in these six dimensions were determined (ΔV = VPOST − VPRE; ΔD = DPRE − DPOST; ΔT = TPRE − TPOST; ΔF = FPRE − FPOST; ΔC = CPRE − CPOST and ΔA = APRE − APOST).
  • State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI). The author of the questionnaire was C. D. Spielberger [55,56], and the Polish adaptation was made by T. Sosnowski and K. Wrześniewski [57]. The test form used had 20 items for assessing state anxiety only. All items were rated on a standard four-point scale (the higher scores, the greater the anxiety). Based on the results obtained before (STAIPRE) and after experimental exposure (STAIPOST) the favorable change of anxiety level (ΔSTAI = STAIPRE − STAIPOST) was determined as the differential data.

2.5. Data Analysis

The raw data were collected using MS Excel 2019, version 1808, build 10413.20020/13 August 2024 (Microsoft, One Microsoft Way, Redmond, WA, USA). Statistical analysis was carried out using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29, Armonk, NY, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS)

The mean size of favorable changes in mental well-being determined by the PANAS (ΔPA, ΔNA) and their uncertainties (confidence 95%) that were determined for both the variants of experimental conditions are presented in Figure 3. On the basis of the t-test for dependent samples, a statistically significant improvement only in negative affect was observed for the virtual forest exposure. The mental activity in the form of forest self-education did not result in any statistically significant changes in PANAS scores (Table 1).

3.2. Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS) and Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS)

The mean size of favorable changes in mental well-being determined by ROS and SVS (ΔROS, ΔSVS) and their uncertainties (confidence 95%) that were determined for both the variants of experimental conditions are presented in Figure 4.
On the basis of the t-test for dependent samples, it was found that both of analyzed benefits (ΔROS and ΔSVS) were statistically significant for the virtual forest exposure. The forest self-education mental activity did not result in any statistically significant changes in ROS and SVS scores (Table 2).

3.3. Profile of Mood States (POMS)

The mean size of favorable changes in mental well-being determined by POMS (ΔT, ΔA, ΔF, ΔD, ΔC, ΔV) and their uncertainties (confidence 95%) that were determined for both the variants of experimental conditions are presented in Figure 5.
On the basis of the t-test for dependent samples, improvements in only two (Tension and Anger) of the six mood dimensions were found for the results obtained for the virtual forest exposure. The mental activity in the form of forest self-education did not result in any statistically significant changes in the results of the Profile of Mood State (POMS) questionnaire (Table 3).

3.4. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)

The mean size of favorable changes in mental well-being regarding anxiety as a state determined by STAI (ΔSTAI) and their uncertainties (confidence 95%) that were determined for both the variants of experimental conditions are presented in Figure 6.
On the basis of the t-test for dependent samples, it was found that the beneficial change in state anxiety (ΔSTAI) was statistically significant only for the virtual forest exposure. The mental activity in the form of forest self-education did not result in any statistically significant change in anxiety as a state (Table 4).

4. Discussion

The growing body of scientific evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of nature and biodiversity on human health and well-being is motivating many world organisations, governments, public administrations and associations to increase their concern and appreciation for natural environments, forests and ecosystems and to promote contact with nature. The best form of such contact is direct, physical immersion in nature, forest bathing. However, this form of contact is not, for various reasons mentioned in the introduction, available to everyone. The recent COVID-19 pandemic has also shown that there are extreme, unpredictable situations that can also block (lockdown) the everyday, common possibility of outdoor immersion. In such moments, electronic and digital technologies that offer the possibility of contact with the natural environment can be helpful. The use of virtual reality technology has been shown to have great potential for emotional and non-neural interventions [47]. According to Song et al. [58], most previous studies on the effects of forest stimuli on humans have used olfactory simulation. It is only in recent years that the development of image projection technology has made it possible to visualize images such as forests with greater clarity. Therefore, in our study, we used 2D video technology with natural forest sounds because it is the most widespread and least expensive form of contact with nature when there is no possibility of being physically present in the forest. This makes it accessible to a wide range of people, especially those with lower economic status, thus contributing in a way to redressing social injustice in accessing the ecosystem services offered by green spaces. In our research, we focused on comparing two very simple and easily achievable ways of contacting with nature at home. In this sense, we consider our study to be original, as we have not come across any work comparing the level of health benefits obtained from different virtual reality tools. Other studies have compared the relaxation benefits obtained from viewing a forest and an opposite ecosystem. For example, Song et al. [58] compared the regenerative effects of viewing images of forest and urban space; Kim et al. [59] and Tang et al. [60] compared images of urban and natural landscapes; Kim et al. [61] compared urban and rural images. There are also studies comparing the results of watching DVDs depicting the sea and forest together with natural sounds [62], photographs showing variables such as the interior, edge and exterior of a wild natural setting and vegetation density [63], as well as forest VR video, water VR video and working-memory group training [47]. The results of these studies indicate the high importance of forest landscapes for improving human well-being. Although sometimes compared to other natural landscapes, the impact of forest is less. For example, Tang et al. [60] found that forest landscapes have a lower impact on attention restoration compared to mountains and waterscapes. Chiang et al. [63], on the other hand, found that viewing the forest interior induced significant stress recovery, while the forest edge was associated with better attentional restoration effects.
Our research focused on psychological effects. We measured mood levels with tests including the POMS, and we also used the STAI. Both tests were also used by Wang [47] in his study. POMS was also used in a study using a virtual environment by Tsutsumi [62]. In another study [58], the semantic differential (SD) method, the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS), was used to determine psychological benefits [60]. Pre- and post-testing using tools such as POMS, PASAS, ROS and SVS psychological tests is also prevalent in studies on the effects of real-world contact with nature on well-being and mood. They were used in their studies by Park et al. [64], Simkin et al. [16] and Janeczko et al. [51]. With the advancing development of information and medical technologies, it is now possible to test many physiological indicators, not only blood pressure or heart rate, but, e.g., brain activity (functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI, near-infrared spectroscopy NIRS AND electroencephalography EEG) and heart rate variability HRV, as well as hormonal activity, Jo et al. [65]. However, our previous research [15] shows that differences in physiological benefits, for example in the form of reduced pulse rate, reduced blood pressure, occur when there is exposure to a changing landscape, for example when we tested different variations of the environment (forest v. city). In the absence of variation in landscape elements, psychological indicators perform better.
Our research clearly shows that among the simplest forms of virtual contact with nature, a better mood and well-being can be achieved by watching a nature film. We observed that, as a result of watching a picture of a forest, restorativeness and vitality increase, there is a greater decrease in negative feelings than in the case of reading a forest-themed book, tension and anger also decrease and anxiety levels decrease. Similarly, Yu et al. [46] also observed increased levels of vigor and decreased levels of negative emotions (i.e., confusion, fatigue, anger-anxiety, tension and depression) in simulated forest environments. Jo et al. [65] notes that many experimental studies in the field of environmental psychology have demonstrated the regenerative potential of natural environments using videos, photographs and natural stimulation of landscapes of mountains, fields, water and forests.
We believe that the differences we observed in the improvement of well-being and mood achieved by watching a 2D video with natural forest sounds and reading a textbook are the result of different sensory involvement, multisensory perception. Watching a film with sound depicting a natural forest directly activated the students’ sense of sight and hearing. This exposure was intended as a substitute for a real trip to the forest. The second exposure consisted of reading an excerpt from a standard forestry textbook on their own. In a sense, it was also a contact with the forest. The assumption was that by reading a text about the forest, the participants in the experiment would, in some way, spontaneously imagine it (see it in their imagination). Our aim was to see if this kind of mental activity would have any effect on the mood and well-being of the subjects. In other words, the first exposure directly engaged the senses and naturally encouraged contemplation of the forest, and the second exposure also had to do with the forest but directly engaged only the subject’s intellect. Watching the recording of the forest interior engages the sense of sight and hearing more. Greater activation of the senses leads to greater health benefits and a fuller immersion in nature.
The results we obtained are similar to those of the aftermath of physical contact between humans and the forest in this respect [66,67,68] and showed a reduction of stress and fatigue and the relaxation effects of viewing natural scenery. Much previous work, Takayama et al. [9], Janeczko et al. [51] and Park et al. [64], has shown that viewing forest landscapes has restorative properties. A study by Takayama et al. [9] indicated that viewing a forest landscape clearly induced feelings of subjective restoration (ROS). According to our study, watching a forest landscape video can reduce tension and anger levels significantly. Previous research [6,10,69] also suggested that, in a forest environment, values of tension, depression, anger, confusion and fatigue indices decrease. Comparing the relaxation effects achieved by watching 2D videos with nature sounds with the results of other researchers’ work conducted directly in the forest, the observation arises that exposure to virtual nature may have a similar effect to that achieved by actual contact with nature. Certainly, this observation requires further research.
The results of our research are also of practical significance. We have shown that images of a forest and the sounds of natural nature are helpful in reducing stress, anger and anxiety. These psychological benefits of forest imagery are significant, especially in view of the increasing urbanization of space and the profound psychological problems associated with living in an urban environment [70]). Exposure to aggression and occupational stress are now among the most common factors threatening the health and functioning of employees. Observations of global trends indicate that, in the coming decades, the primary task of occupational health services will be to protect workers from the adverse effects of psychosocial working conditions [71]. One form of combating stress and anger is the design of indoor public spaces offering opportunities for tranquility and relaxation. If proximity to natural sunlight or plants is not possible indoors, the placement of photos or films depicting the forest landscape, or perhaps also other natural landscapes, can be beneficial for the psychological well-being especially of those people who spend most of their day indoors.

5. Limitation

Our study has several limitations. One of them may be the fact that it is based on a relatively small research sample. This was dictated by a number of considerations. It was an experimental study with no specific source of funding. Participants were involved on a volunteer basis. Moreover, many other studies based on psychological testing relied on a comparable research sample size. For example, An et al. [72] included 13 students, while Takayama et al. [73,74] had 10 and 19 participants (respectively), Bielinis et al. [75] included 24 participants and Tsutsumi et al. [62] had 12 participants. Apart from the relatively small sample used in this study, the target population was students, so our results cannot be generalized to the general public who may participate in forest therapy.
Another limitation of this study is that we focused on the psychological effects immediately after the experiment, excluding potential long-term effects. This remains a topic for future research.

6. Conclusions

Mood and stress are particularly relevant when it comes to mental well-being. Being in the forest definitely increases people’s psychological well-being. However, it turns out that a 20-min viewing of a 2D video of a forest with natural sounds of nature also has a positive effect on the psychological relaxation of the subjects. We observed an increase in restorativeness and vitality in the experimental participants as a result of watching the forest image, as well as a greater decrease in negative feelings, tension and anger than when reading a forest-themed book. According to our research, watching a video of a forest landscape can reduce tension and anger levels significantly, which can be an important indication in relation to the interior design of public spaces and the protection of employees from the adverse effects of psychosocial working conditions, as well as the desire to stabilize anger and maintain emotional stability in everyday life.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.J. and J.G.; methodology, E.J. and J.G.; software, K.Ś., P.P. and W.K.; validation, E.J., J.G., K.Ś., M.W. and K.J.; formal analysis, J.G. and P.P.; investigation, M.W., K.J. and W.K.; resources, E.J., M.W., K.Ś., P.P. and W.K.; data curation, J.G.; writing—original draft preparation, E.J. and J.G; writing—review and editing, J.G. and M.W.; visualization, E.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Denche-Zamorano, A.; Rodríguez-Redondo, Y.; Rojo-Ramos, J.; Miguel-Barrado, V.; Sánchez-Leal, A.; Pérez-Calderon, E. Global Review of Literature on Forest Bathing. Austrian J. For. Sci. 2024, 141, 145–170. [Google Scholar]
  2. Tsunetsugu, Y.; Park, B.-J.; Ishii, H.; Hirano, H.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological Effects of Shinrin-Yoku (Taking in the Atmosphere of the Forest) in an Old-Growth Broadleaf Forest in Yamagata Prefecture, Japan. J. Physiol. Anthropol. 2007, 26, 135–142. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Lee, J.; Park, B.-J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Ohira, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Effect of Forest Bathing on Physiological and Psychological Responses in Young Japanese Male Subjects. Public Health 2011, 125, 93–100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Lee, J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Takayama, N.; Park, B.-J.; Li, Q.; Song, C.; Komatsu, M.; Ikei, H.; Tyrväinen, L.; Kagawa, T.; et al. Influence of Forest Therapy on Cardiovascular Relaxation in Young Adults. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2014, 2014, 834360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Jung, W.H.; Woo, J.-M.; Ryu, J.S. Effect of a Forest Therapy Program and the Forest Environment on Female Workers’ Stress. Urban For. Urban Green. 2015, 14, 274–281. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Ochiai, H.; Ikei, H.; Song, C.; Kobayashi, M.; Miura, T.; Kagawa, T.; Li, Q.; Kumeda, S.; Imai, M.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Effects of a Forest Therapy Program on Middle-Aged Females. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 15222–15232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Han, J.-W.; Choi, H.; Jeon, Y.-H.; Yoon, C.-H.; Woo, J.-M.; Kim, W. The Effects of Forest Therapy on Coping with Chronic Widespread Pain: Physiological and Psychological Differences between Participants in a Forest Therapy Program and a Control Group. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2016, 13, 255. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Takayama, N.; Korpela, K.; Lee, J.; Morikawa, T.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Park, B.-J.; Li, Q.; Tyrväinen, L.; Miyazaki, Y.; Kagawa, T. Emotional, Restorative and Vitalizing Effects of Forest and Urban Environments at Four Sites in Japan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 7207–7230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Takayama, N.; Saito, H.; Fujiwara, A.; Horiuchi, M. The Effect of Slight Thinning of Managed Coniferous Forest on Landscape Appreciation and Psychological Restoration. Prog. Earth Planet. Sci. 2017, 4, 17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Takayama, N.; Morikawa, T.; Bielinis, E. Relation between Psychological Restorativeness and Lifestyle, Quality of Life, Resilience, and Stress-Coping in Forest Settings. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1456. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Chen, H.-T.; Yu, C.-P.; Lee, H.-Y. The Effects of Forest Bathing on Stress Recovery: Evidence from Middle-Aged Females of Taiwan. Forests 2018, 9, 403. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Beil, K.; Hanes, D. The Influence of Urban Natural and Built Environments on Physiological and Psychological Measures of Stress—A Pilot Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 1250–1267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Tyrväinen, L.; Ojala, A.; Korpela, K.; Lanki, T.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kagawa, T. The Influence of Urban Green Environments on Stress Relief Measures: A Field Experiment. J. Environ. Psychol. 2014, 38, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Pasanen, T.P.; Ojala, A.; Tyrväinen, L.; Korpela, K.M. Restoration, Well-Being, and Everyday Physical Activity in Indoor, Built Outdoor and Natural Outdoor Settings. J. Environ. Psychol. 2018, 59, 85–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Janeczko, E.; Bielinis, E.; Wójcik, R.; Woźnicka, M.; Kędziora, W.; Łukowski, A.; Elsadek, M.; Szyc, K.; Janeczko, K. When Urban Environment Is Restorative: The Effect of Walking in Suburbs and Forests on Psychological and Physiological Relaxation of Young Polish Adults. Forests 2020, 11, 591. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Simkin, J.; Ojala, A.; Tyrväinen, L. Restorative Effects of Mature and Young Commercial Forests, Pristine Old-Growth Forest and Urban Recreation Forest—A Field Experiment. Urban For. Urban Green. 2020, 48, 126567. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Bielinis, E.; Janeczko, E.; Takayama, N.; Zawadzka, A.; Słupska, A.; Piętka, S.; Lipponen, M.; Bielinis, L. The Effects of Viewing a Winter Forest Landscape with the Ground and Trees Covered in Snow on the Psychological Relaxation of Young Finnish Adults: A Pilot Study. PLoS ONE 2021, 16, e0244799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Keller, J.; Kayira, J.; Chawla, L.; Rhoades, J.L. Forest Bathing Increases Adolescents’ Mental Well-Being: A Mixed-Methods Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 21, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Herzog, T.R.; Chen, H.C.; Primeau, J.S. Perception of the restorative potential of natural and other settings. J. Environ. Psychol. 2002, 22, 295–306. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Hartig, T.; Evans, G.W.; Jamner, L.D.; Davis, D.S.; Gärling, T. Tracking Restoration in Natural and Urban Field Settings. J. Environ. Psychol. 2003, 23, 109–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Korpela, K.M.; Ylén, M.; Tyrväinen, L.; Silvennoinen, H. Determinants of Restorative Experiences in Everyday Favorite Places. Health Place 2008, 14, 636–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  22. White, M.P.; Pahl, S.; Ashbullby, K.; Herbert, S.; Depledge, M.H. Feelings of Restoration from Recent Nature Visits. J. Environ. Psychol. 2013, 35, 40–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Hartig, T.; Staats, H. The Need for Psychological Restoration as a Determinant of Environmental Preferences. J. Environ. Psychol. 2006, 26, 215–226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Miyazaki, Y.; Ikei, H.; Song, C. Forest Medicine Research in Japan. Jpn. J. Hyg. 2014, 69, 122–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Bielinis, E.; Jaroszewska, A.; Łukowski, A.; Takayama, N. The Effects of a Forest Therapy Programme on Mental Hospital Patients with Affective and Psychotic Disorders. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 17, 118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Stier-Jarmer, M.; Throner, V.; Kirschneck, M.; Immich, G.; Frisch, D.; Schuh, A. The Psychological and Physical Effects of Forests on Human Health: A Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 1770. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Zhu, Z.; Zhao, X.; OuYang, Q.; Wang, Y.; Xiong, Y.; Cong, S.; Zhou, M.; Zhang, M.; Luo, X.; Cheng, M. Waterfall Forest Environment Regulates Chronic Stress via the NOX4/ROS/NF-κB Signaling Pathway. Front. Neurol. 2021, 12, 619728. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lee, J.; Park, B.-J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Restorative Effects of Viewing Real Forest Landscapes, Based on a Comparison with Urban Landscapes. Scand. J. For. Res. 2009, 24, 227–234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Li, Q.; Morimoto, K.; Nakadai, A.; Inagaki, H.; Katsumata, M.; Shimizu, T.; Hirata, Y.; Hirata, K.; Suzuki, H.; Miyazaki, Y.; et al. Forest Bathing Enhances Human Natural Killer Activity and Expression of Anti-Cancer Proteins. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 2007, 20, 3–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Li, Q.; Morimoto, K.; Kobayashi, M.; Inagaki, H.; Katsumata, M.; Hirata, Y.; Hirata, K.; Shimizu, T.; Li, Y.; Wakayama, Y.; et al. A Forest Bathing Trip Increases Human Natural Killer Activity and Expression of Anti-Cancer Proteins in Female Subjects. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents 2008, 22, 45–55. [Google Scholar]
  31. Mao, G.-X.; Cao, Y.-B.; Lan, X.-G.; He, Z.-H.; Chen, Z.-M.; Wang, Y.-Z.; Hu, X.-L.; Lv, Y.-D.; Wang, G.-F.; Yan, J. Therapeutic Effect of Forest Bathing on Human Hypertension in the Elderly. J. Cardiol. 2012, 60, 495–502. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Li, Q.; Kawada, T. Healthy Forest Parks Make Healthy People: Forest Environments Enhance Human Immune Function; Department of Hygiene and Public Health, Nippon Medical School: Tokyo, Japan, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  33. Kang, Z.; Xing, H.; Lin, Q.; Meng, F.; Gong, L. Effectiveness of Therapeutic Massage for Improving Motor Symptoms in Parkinson’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Neurol. 2022, 13, 915232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. López-Pousa, S.; Bassets Pagès, G.; Monserrat-Vila, S.; de Gracia Blanco, M.; Hidalgo Colomé, J.; Garre-Olmo, J. Sense of Well-Being in Patients with Fibromyalgia: Aerobic Exercise Program in a Mature Forest—A Pilot Study. Evid.-Based Complement. Altern. Med. 2015, 2015, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  35. Qiu, C.; Liu, Q.; Yu, C.; Li, Z.; Nie, Y. The Influence of Meaning in Life on Children and Adolescents’ Problematic Smartphone Use: A Three-Wave Multiple Mediation Model. Addict. Behav. 2022, 126, 107199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Bielinis, E.; Omelan, A.; Boiko, S.; Bielinis, L. The Restorative Effect of Staying in a Broad-Leaved Forest on Healthy Young Adults in Winter and Spring. Balt. For. 2018, 24, 218–227. [Google Scholar]
  37. Ulrich, R.S. View Through a Window May Influence Recovery from Surgery. Science 1984, 224, 420–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Diette, G.B.; Lechtzin, N.; Haponik, E.; Devrotes, A.; Rubin, H.R. Distraction Therapy With Nature Sights and Sounds Reduces Pain During Flexible Bronchoscopya. Chest 2003, 123, 941–948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Miller, A.; Hickman, L.; Lemasters, G. A Distraction Technique for Control of Burn Pain. J. Burn Care Rehabil. 1992, 13, 576–580. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  40. Moran, D.; Jones, P.I.; Jordaan, J.A.; Porter, A.E. Does prison location matter for prisoner wellbeing? The effect of surrounding greenspace on self-harm and violence in prisons in England and Wales. Wellbeing Space Soc. 2022, 3, 100065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Jewkes, Y.; Moran, D.; Turner, J. Just add water: Prisons, therapeutic landscapes and healthy blue space. Criminol. Crim. Justice 2020, 20, 381–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Malenbaum, S.; Keefe, F.J.; Williams, A.C.D.C.; Ulrich, R.; Somers, T.J. Pain in its environmental context: Implications for designing environments to enhance pain control. Pain 2008, 134, 241–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. White, M.; Smith, A.; Humphryes, K.; Pahl, S.; Snelling, D.; Depledge, M. Blue Space: The Importance of Water for Preference, Affect, and Restorativeness Ratings of Natural and Built Scenes. J. Environ. Psychol. 2010, 30, 482–493. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Chan, H.; Chang, H.; Huang, T. Virtual Reality Teaching in Chemotherapy Administration: Randomised Controlled Trial. J. Clin. Nurs. 2021, 30, 1874–1883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Janeczko, E.; Bielinis, E.; Tiarasari, U.; Woźnicka, M.; Kędziora, W.; Przygodzki, S.; Janeczko, K. How Dead Wood in the Forest De-creases Relaxation? The Effects of Viewing of Dead Wood in the Forest Environment on Psychological Responses of Young Adults. Forests 2021, 12, 871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Yu, C.-P.; Lee, H.-Y.; Luo, X.-Y. The Effect of Virtual Reality Forest and Urban Environments on Physiological and Psychological Responses. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 35, 106–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Wang, X.; Jin, Y.; Li, X.; Song, Y.; Pan, D. A Study of the Emotional and Cognitive Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Nature Virtual Reality (VR) Videos on Mobile Terminals. Forests 2024, 15, 853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Atchley, R.A.; Strayer, D.L.; Atchley, P. Creativity in the Wild: Improving Creative Reasoning through Immersion in Natural Settings. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e51474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Larson, L.R.; Szczytko, R.; Bowers, E.P.; Stephens, L.E.; Stevenson, K.T.; Floyd, M.F. Outdoor Time, Screen Time, and Connection to Nature: Troubling Trends Among Rural Youth? Environ. Behav. 2019, 51, 966–991. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Stiglic, N.; Viner, R.M. Effects of screentime on the health and well-being of children and adolescents: A systematic review of reviews. BMJ Open 2019, 9, e023191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Janeczko, E.; Górski, J.; Woźnicka, M.; Czyżyk, K.; Kędziora, W.; Korcz, N. Physical Activity in Forest and Psychological Health Benefits: A Field Experiment with Young Polish Adults. Forests 2023, 14, 1904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Janeczko, E.; Wójcik, R.; Kędziora, W.; Janeczko, K.; Woźnicka, M. Organised Physical Activity in the Forests of the Warsaw and Tricity Agglomerations, Poland. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3961. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Brzozowski, P. Internal Structure Stability of Positive and Negative Concepts. Pol. Psychol. Bull. 1991, 22, 91–106. [Google Scholar]
  54. Dudek, B.; Koniarek, J. The Adaptation of Profile of Mood States (POMS) by DM McNair, M. Lorr, LF Droppelman. Przegl. Psych. 1987, 30, 753–762. [Google Scholar]
  55. Spielberger, C.D.; Gorsuch, R.; Lushene, R.; Vagg, P.R.; Jacobs, G.A. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety; Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA, USA, 1983. [Google Scholar]
  56. Greene, J.; Cohen, D.; Siskowski, C.; Toyinbo, P. The Relationship Between Family Caregiving and the Mental Health of Emerging Young Adult Caregivers. J. Behav. Health Serv. Res. 2017, 44, 551–563. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Sosnowski, T.; Wrześniewski, K. Polska Adaptacja Inwentarza STAI Do Badania Stanu i Cechy Lęku. Polskie Towarzystwo Psychologiczne: Warsaw, Poland, 2011; ISBN 9788360733752. (In Polish) [Google Scholar]
  58. Song, C.; Ikei, H.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological Effects of Visual Stimulation with Forest Imagery. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Kim, G.W.; Jeong, G.W.; Kim, T.H.; Baek, H.S.; Oh, S.K.; Kang, H.K.; Lee, S.G.; Kim, Y.S.; Song, J.K. Functional neuroanatomy associated with natural and urban scenic views in the human brain: 3.0 T functional MR imaging. Korean J. Radiol. 2010, 11, 507–513. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Tang, I.C.; Tsai, Y.-P.; Lin, Y.-J.; Chen, J.-H.; Hsieh, C.-H.; Hung, S.-H.; Sullivan, W.C.; Tang, H.-F.; Chang, C.-Y. Using functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to analyze brain region activity when viewing landscapes. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 162, 137–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Kim, T.H.; Jeong, G.W.; Baek, H.S.; Kim, G.W.; Sundaram, T.; Kang, H.K.; Lee, S.W.; Kim, H.J.; Song, J.K. Human brain activation in response to visual stimulation with rural and urban scenery pictures: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 2600–2607. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Tsutsumi, M.; Nogaki, H.; Shimizu, Y.; Stone, T.E.; Kobayashi, T. Individual reactions to viewing preferred video representations of the natural environment: A comparison of mental and physical reactions. Jpn. J. Nurs. Sci. 2017, 14, 3–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Chiang, Y.C.; Li, D.; Jane, H.A. Wild or tended nature? The effects of landscape location and vegetation density on physiological and psychological responses. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2017, 167, 72–83. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Park, B.J.; Tsunetsugu, Y.; Kasetani, T.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. The Physiological Effects of Shinrin-Yoku (Taking in the Forest Atmosphere or Forest Bathing): Evidence from Field Experiments in 24 Forests across Japan. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 2010, 15, 18–26. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Jo, H.; Song, C.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological Benefits of Viewing Nature: A Systematic Review of Indoor Experiments. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Herzog, T.R.; Black, A.M.; Fountaine, K.A.; Knotts, D.J. Reflection And Attentional Recovery As Distinctive Benefits of Restorative Environments. J. Environ. Psychol. 1997, 17, 165–170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. St Leger, L. Health and Nature—New Challenges for Health Promotion. Health Promot. Int. 2003, 18, 173–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  68. Tsunetsugu, Y.; Lee, J.; Park, B.-J.; Tyrväinen, L.; Kagawa, T.; Miyazaki, Y. Physiological and Psychological Effects of Viewing Urban Forest Landscapes Assessed by Multiple Measurements. Landsc. Urban Plan. 2013, 113, 90–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Bielinis, E.; Takayama, N.; Boiko, S.; Omelan, A.; Bielinis, L. The Effect of Winter Forest Bathing on Psychological Relaxation of Young Polish Adults. Urban For. Urban Green. 2018, 29, 276–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. McKenzie, K.; Murray, A.L.; Booth, T. Do urban environments increase the risk of anxiety, depression and psychosis? An epidemiological study. J. Affect. Disord. 2013, 150, 1019–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Mościcka, A.; Merecz, D. Agresja w Miejscu Pracy-Źródła, Formy, Grupy Ryzyka, Konsekwencje. Med. Pract. 2003, 54, 361–368. [Google Scholar]
  72. An, B.-Y.; Wang, D.; Liu, X.-J.; Guan, H.-M.; Wei, H.-X.; Ren, Z.-B. The Effect of Environmental Factors in Urban Forests on Blood Pressure and Heart Rate in University Students. J. For. Res. 2019, 24, 27–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Takayama, N.; Saito, K.; Fujiwara, A. Continuing Changes in QOL and Mood States Staying in a University Forest Area for Five Days and Four Nights. J. Jpn. For. Res. 2018, 100, 71–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Takayama, N.; Saito, K.; Fujiwara, A.; Tsutsui, S. Influence of Five-Day Suburban Forest Stay on Stress Coping, Resilience, and Mood States. J. Environ. Inf. Sci. 2018, 2017, 49–57. [Google Scholar]
  75. Bielinis, E.; Janeczko, E.; Korcz, N.; Janeczko, K.; Bielinis, L. Effect of an Illegal Open Dump in an Urban Forest on Landscape Appreciation. PLoS ONE 2022, 17, e0277795. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Forests 15 01549 g001
Figure 1. Excerpt from the video used in the experiment.
Figure 1. Excerpt from the video used in the experiment.
Forests 15 01549 g001
Forests 15 01549 g002
Figure 2. The simplified diagram of the experiment’s process, which ignores the fact that the order of both exposures (“Forest Self-Education” and “Virtual Forest Exposure”) was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect.
Figure 2. The simplified diagram of the experiment’s process, which ignores the fact that the order of both exposures (“Forest Self-Education” and “Virtual Forest Exposure”) was intentionally changed (reversed) for every second participant in this study to reduce the order effect.
Forests 15 01549 g002
Forests 15 01549 g003
Figure 3. Favorable changes in positive (ΔPA) and negative (ΔNA) affect.
Figure 3. Favorable changes in positive (ΔPA) and negative (ΔNA) affect.
Forests 15 01549 g003
Forests 15 01549 g004
Figure 4. Favorable changes in subjective restorativeness (ΔROS) and subjective vitality (ΔSVS).
Figure 4. Favorable changes in subjective restorativeness (ΔROS) and subjective vitality (ΔSVS).
Forests 15 01549 g004
Forests 15 01549 g005
Figure 5. Favorable changes in following dimensions of mood: Tension (ΔT), Anger (ΔA), Fatigue (ΔF), Depression (ΔD), Confusion (ΔC) and Vigor (ΔV).
Figure 5. Favorable changes in following dimensions of mood: Tension (ΔT), Anger (ΔA), Fatigue (ΔF), Depression (ΔD), Confusion (ΔC) and Vigor (ΔV).
Forests 15 01549 g005
Forests 15 01549 g006
Figure 6. Favorable changes in state anxiety (ΔSTAI).
Figure 6. Favorable changes in state anxiety (ΔSTAI).
Forests 15 01549 g006
Table 1. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of PANAS during the experiment.
Table 1. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of PANAS during the experiment.
MeasuresVirtual Forest ExposureForest Self-Education
MeantpMeantp
ΔPA0.005 ± 0.230.0450.965−0.27 ± 0.31−1.730.101
ΔNA0.2 ± 0.172.330.032 *0.04 ± 0.270.2760.786
* statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Table 2. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of ROS and SVS during the experiment.
Table 2. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of ROS and SVS during the experiment.
MeasuresVirtual Forest ExposureForest Self-Education
MeantpMeantp
ΔROS0.84 ± 0.404.192<0.001 *−0.3 ± 0.58−1.0270.318
ΔSVS0.64 ± 0.502.5540.02 *−0.32 ± 0.57−1.1040.284
* statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Table 3. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of POMS subscales during the experiment.
Table 3. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of POMS subscales during the experiment.
MeasuresVirtual Forest ExposureForest Self-Education
MeantpMeantp
ΔT0.35 ± 0.223.0880.006 *0.09 ± 0.33−1.4270.171
ΔA0.16 ± 0.132.4550.025 *0.04 ± 0.25−0.8710.395
ΔF0.1 ± 0.260.7350.4720.3 ± 0.42−1.6460.117
ΔD0.13 ± 0.191.3320.1990.13 ± 0.2−1.340.197
ΔC0.18 ± 0.221.6130.1240.11 ± 0.35−0.5990.557
ΔV−0.007 ± 0.27−0.0480.9620.3 ± 0.34−1.0350.314
* statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Table 4. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of STAI during the experiment.
Table 4. Means and t-test results of psychological measures of STAI during the experiment.
MeasuresVirtual Forest ExposureForest Self-Education
MeantpMeantp
ΔSTAI6.63 ± 3.114.261<0.001 *−2.32 ± 4.5−1.0280.317
* statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Janeczko, E.; Woźnicka, M.; Kędziora, W.; Janeczko, K.; Śmietańska, K.; Podziewski, P.; Górski, J. Effect of Exposure to 2D Video of Forest Environment with Natural Forest Sound on Psychological Well-Being of Healthy Young Adults. Forests 2024, 15, 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091549

AMA Style

Janeczko E, Woźnicka M, Kędziora W, Janeczko K, Śmietańska K, Podziewski P, Górski J. Effect of Exposure to 2D Video of Forest Environment with Natural Forest Sound on Psychological Well-Being of Healthy Young Adults. Forests. 2024; 15(9):1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091549

Chicago/Turabian Style

Janeczko, Emilia, Małgorzata Woźnicka, Wojciech Kędziora, Krzysztof Janeczko, Katarzyna Śmietańska, Piotr Podziewski, and Jarosław Górski. 2024. "Effect of Exposure to 2D Video of Forest Environment with Natural Forest Sound on Psychological Well-Being of Healthy Young Adults" Forests 15, no. 9: 1549. https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091549

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop