Forests

19 pages, 11877 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Sanitary Felling During Large-Scale Disturbances on Regulating Ecosystem Services in Norway Spruce-Dominated Pre-Alpine Beech Forests of Slovenia

by Anže Martin Pintar, Andreja Ferreira, Pia Höfferle and Anže Japelj

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111631 (registering DOI) - 25 Oct 2025

Abstract

Ecosystem services (ES) are closely linked to nature-based solutions, which can mitigate the negative impacts of climate change or provide society with direct tangible and intangible benefits. In the context of a changing climate, it is essential to preserve these services despite increasing [...] Read more.

Ecosystem services (ES) are closely linked to nature-based solutions, which can mitigate the negative impacts of climate change or provide society with direct tangible and intangible benefits. In the context of a changing climate, it is essential to preserve these services despite increasing disturbances. In this study, we analysed changes in the structure and composition of the Jelovica forest complex (NW Slovenia) over the past two decades and assessed the provision of key regulating forest ES—specifically, soil erosion control, regulation of surface and groundwater flows, and regional climate regulation. The area has historically seen the artificial promotion of Norway spruce and, in recent decades, has been increasingly affected by large-scale disturbances and bark beetle outbreaks. We examined how these climate-related disturbances have influenced the availability of regulating ES. Over the past twenty years, the share of spruce in the growing stock in the Jelovica area decreased from 67% to 62%. We compared structural and compositional changes between two periods, 2001–2009 and 2015–2023, based on available forest management data. In both periods, mature stands were the dominant developmental stage. In the northwestern part of the Jelovica plateau, where extensive sanitary felling was carried out, the proportion of sapling stands increased significantly—unlike in other parts of the plateau. Areas affected by extensive sanitary felling exhibited statistically significantly lower evapotranspiration and reduced soil erosion control capacity, as well as higher levels of groundwater recharge, compared to other areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forests as Nature-Based Solutions: Ecosystem Services, Multiple Benefits, and Trade-Offs)

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15 pages, 2731 KB

Open AccessArticle

Determination of the Bending and Shear Properties of Wood-Based Materials Using the TIMOSHENKO Beam Theory

by Patrick Kluge and Sven Eichhorn

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111630 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Wood-based materials in the form of wood veneer composites (WVCs) possess a high lightweight construction potential for load-bearing applications in mechanical engineering due to their high strength properties combined with low density. However, in order to substitute energy-intensive metallic construction materials (such as [...] Read more.

Wood-based materials in the form of wood veneer composites (WVCs) possess a high lightweight construction potential for load-bearing applications in mechanical engineering due to their high strength properties combined with low density. However, in order to substitute energy-intensive metallic construction materials (such as steel or aluminum), additional structural space is required to compensate for the comparatively low stiffness by means of the area moment of inertia. Under bending loads, an increase in cross-sectional height at a constant span length leads to elevated shear stresses. Owing to the low shear strength and stiffness of wood-based materials, the influence of shear stresses must be considered in both the design of wooden components and in material testing. Current standards for determining the bending properties of wood-based materials only describe methods for assessing pure bending behavior, without accounting for shear effects. The present contribution introduces a method for determining both bending and shear properties of WVC using the three-point bending test. This approach allows for the derivation of bending and shear modulus values through an analytical model based on Timoshenko beam theory by testing various span-to-height ratios. These modulus values represent material constants and enable the numerical design of wooden components for arbitrary geometric parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Measurement and Enhancement of Wood Mechanical and Chemical Properties, 2nd Edition)

14 pages, 318 KB

Open AccessArticle

Proposing Green Growth Indicators for Enterprises in the Woodworking and Furniture Industry

by Mariana Sedliačiková, Marek Kostúr and Mária Osvaldová

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111629 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

The increasing emphasis on environmental protection, climate change mitigation, and the transition to a circular economy requires industries, including the wood-processing sector, to integrate sustainability into strategic and operational management. Green growth indicators represent essential tools for evaluating the environmental, economic, and social [...] Read more.

The increasing emphasis on environmental protection, climate change mitigation, and the transition to a circular economy requires industries, including the wood-processing sector, to integrate sustainability into strategic and operational management. Green growth indicators represent essential tools for evaluating the environmental, economic, and social impacts of business activities, while also contributing to the sustainable economics and responsible management of forest resources and products. This study applies a qualitative research design using structured interviews with 10 executives from medium and large woodworking enterprises in Slovakia. The interviews examined company strategies, practices, and challenges in sustainable development and forest resource utilization. The findings reveal that while many companies actively manage waste, invest in green technologies, and conduct internal audits, the broader implementation of environmental management systems and the uptake of public sustainability funding remain limited. Notably, 90% of respondents emphasized waste volume and recovery rates as critical indicators. Based on the results, a set of green growth indicators was developed and categorized across key thematic areas including waste management, energy efficiency, stakeholder communication, certification, and strategic planning. These indicators not only support the assessment of corporate sustainability but also strengthen efficient forest resource management, responsible use of raw materials, and the long-term economic viability of the sector. The study highlights the importance of systematically designed and practically applicable indicators for guiding companies toward sustainable competitiveness and emphasizes the need for stronger institutional support, improved access to reliable data, and integration of sustainability metrics into core business decision-making. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Economics and Management of Forest Resources and Products)

6 pages, 683 KB

Open AccessCommunication

A Metabarcoding Amplicon Sequencing Approach for Reliable Early Detection and Surveillance of Oak Wilt (Bretziella fagacearum) from Trap-Collected Nitidulid Beetles

by Lawrence M. Gordon, Ryan S. Crandall, Muriel Kelly, Jeffrey A. Hall, Joseph L. Sevigny, Adane S. Nigatu, Stephen D. Simpson, Krystalynne Morris and W. Kelley Thomas

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111628 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Early detection protocols for the oak wilt fungal pathogen (Bretziella fagacearum) are crucial for forest health practitioners on the boundaries of the growing disease front. Established protocols use oak wilt-specific primers and gel electrophoresis to amplify and detect oak wilt among [...] Read more.

Early detection protocols for the oak wilt fungal pathogen (Bretziella fagacearum) are crucial for forest health practitioners on the boundaries of the growing disease front. Established protocols use oak wilt-specific primers and gel electrophoresis to amplify and detect oak wilt among DNA extracted from nitidulid vectors. However, these protocols are prone to inconclusive results due to the presence of off-target amplification products similar in size to positive control bands. Using sequence-adapted oak wilt primers, we employed a metabarcoding amplicon sequencing approach that resolved inconclusive results and validated true oak wilt positives. We found that these off-target amplification products are co-occurring taxa from natural forest and beetle microbiomes, further necessitating a sequencing approach for early surveillance of oak wilt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenic Fungi in Forest)

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4 pages, 186 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Urban Green Infrastructure and Urban Landscape Ecology: Advances in Structure, Function, and Adaptive Management

by Chunlin Li, Tiemao Shi, Tangao Hu and Zhibin Ren

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111627 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Urbanization, as one of the most profound anthropogenic drivers of global environmental change, poses unprecedented challenges to ecosystem stability, human health, and social equity [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Urban Landscape Ecology)

18 pages, 454 KB

Open AccessArticle

Insights into Forest Composition Effects on Wildland–Urban Interface Wildfire Suppression Expenditures in British Columbia

by Lili Sun, Rico Chan, Kota Endo and Stephen W. Taylor

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111626 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Burned area, fire severity, and suppression expenditures have increased in British Columbia in recent decades with climate change. Approximately 80% of suppression expenditures are attributable to wildfires near the Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI). Evaluating the potential for fuel management to reduce suppression expenditures is [...] Read more.

Burned area, fire severity, and suppression expenditures have increased in British Columbia in recent decades with climate change. Approximately 80% of suppression expenditures are attributable to wildfires near the Wildland–Urban Interface (WUI). Evaluating the potential for fuel management to reduce suppression expenditures is essential to mitigating demands on fire response resources and reducing impacts on communities. One management approach is to increase the proportion of deciduous tree species, which have a lower propensity for crown fire. Using fire suppression expenditure data from 1981 to 2014, we applied the machine learning method causal forests (CFs) to estimate the effect of the proportion of conifer forest cover on suppression expenditures for WUI fires and how these effects varied with other influential factors (i.e., heterogenous treatment effects). Across all fires, the effect of conifer cover on suppression expenditures was stronger on private land compared to public land, under high fire danger measured by daily severity ratings (DSRs), which reflect wind speed and fuel moisture, and for fires igniting earlier in the calendar year, based on Julian day. These findings provide insights into prioritizing wildland fuel treatment when budgets are limited. The CFs approach demonstrates potential for broader applications in fire risk mitigation and analysis beyond the scope of the current data. CFs may also be valuable in other areas of forest research where heterogenous treatment effects are common. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

24 pages, 18322 KB

Open AccessArticle

Block or Connect? Optimizing Ecological Corridors to Enhance the Dual Functions of Resistance and Provision in Forest-Mountain Ecological Security Barriers

by Lei Cao, Chengbin Xi, Xinyao Zhao and Yunlu Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111625 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Ecological security barriers safeguard regional ecological security by blocking external risks and supplying internal services. However, existing research has primarily focused on optimizing the connectivity and protection of internal ecological patches within barriers. At a broader scale, there remains insufficient attention on coordinating [...] Read more.

Ecological security barriers safeguard regional ecological security by blocking external risks and supplying internal services. However, existing research has primarily focused on optimizing the connectivity and protection of internal ecological patches within barriers. At a broader scale, there remains insufficient attention on coordinating the “blocking of external ecological risk corridors” and “connecting corridors that supply ecosystem services to internal urban areas”. To address this, this study develops a framework for constructing ecological corridors that integrates both reverse (resistance) and forward (provision) perspectives. Taking the Yanshan–Taihang Mountain Ecological Barrier as a case study, circuit theory is applied to identify risk corridors traversing the barrier area. Service supply corridors directed toward internal urban areas are also established, and key nodes along these corridors are identified. Furthermore, the XGBoost-SHAP method is employed to quantitatively analyze the influencing factors and mechanisms of these key nodes. Finally, strategies are proposed to block risk corridors and connect supply corridors. The main results are as follows: (1) A total of 29 risk corridors, 158 risk pinch points, and 210 risk barriers were identified, along with 250 supply corridors, 158 supply pinch points, and 118 supply barriers, revealing the distinct distribution patterns of both risk transmission and service supply corridors. (2) The dominant factors influencing different types of corridors exhibited significant differences: risk corridors were primarily regulated by natural factors such as mean annual evapotranspiration (EVA) and soil volumetric water content (VWC), whereas supply corridors were mainly influenced by human activities, including the human footprint index (HFP) and land surface temperature (TEM). (3) Even within the same type of corridor, the dominant factors and their operating mechanisms—such as threshold effects and nonlinear interactions—showed considerable heterogeneity across nodes of different characteristics. Based on these findings, differentiated policy recommendations were proposed. This study aims to synergistically enhance the bidirectional functionality of forest-mountain ecological barriers by disrupting external risk corridors and reconstructing internal supply networks. The framework and methodology presented here can provide theoretical and empirical references for the planning and management of other similar barrier regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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17 pages, 1925 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ontogenetic Stage Strongly and Differentially Influences Leaf Economic and Stomatal Traits Along Phyllotactic and Environmental Gradients

by Jian Li, Yunlong Wang, Qingxin Mao, Wanting Cheng, Mingyang Cao, Honghui Teng, Yunfei Diao, Mingyue Jin and Nuoya Fei

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111624 (registering DOI) - 24 Oct 2025

Abstract

Phyllotaxy is a key determinant of intraspecific variation in leaf functional traits, with different leaflet positions often representing distinct strategies of resource acquisition and utilization. Yet, the extent to which such phyllotactic differentiation is modulated by ontogenetic stage remains poorly understood. Here, we [...] Read more.

Phyllotaxy is a key determinant of intraspecific variation in leaf functional traits, with different leaflet positions often representing distinct strategies of resource acquisition and utilization. Yet, the extent to which such phyllotactic differentiation is modulated by ontogenetic stage remains poorly understood. Here, we examined saplings and adult trees of Fraxinus mandshurica, a dominant compound-leaved species in temperate broadleaf forests, by quantifying four leaf economic traits and four stomatal traits across six phyllotactic positions. We further assessed the relative influences of phyllotaxy and environmental factors, including soil total nitrogen, soil water content, and canopy openness, on trait variation at different ontogenetic stages. Our results showed that economic traits varied significantly along phyllotaxy, whereas stomatal traits were relatively conservative. The effects of ontogenetic stage on traits at a given phyllotactic position were trait-specific. Within-group correlations of economic traits and of stomatal traits remained stable across ontogenetic stages and were consistently stronger than between-group correlations. Sapling traits were more strongly affected by soil total nitrogen and soil water content, whereas those in adult trees were primarily shaped by soil water content and canopy openness. Moreover, both trait–trait and trait–environment associations were weaker at the leaflet level than at the compound-leaf level. Our study highlights the critical role of ontogenetic stage in shaping leaf trait responses to phyllotaxy and environmental change, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying intraspecific trait variation in compound-leaved tree species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Approaches to Understanding Plant Photosynthesis Dynamics in Forest Ecosystems Under Climate Change)

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20 pages, 5029 KB

Open AccessArticle

Withdrawal Behavior of the Self-Tapping Screws in Bamboo/Wood-Oriented Strand Board

by Kaiting Zhang, Jun Zhang, Yong Guo and Yuxia Chen

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111623 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study examines how screw diameter, penetration length, and aperture ratio affect self-tapping screw (STS) withdrawal resistance in bamboo/wood-oriented strand board (WOSB/BOSB) to increase bamboo use in construction and furniture. It proposes a widely applicable empirical formula for calculating withdrawal resistance. With its [...] Read more.

This study examines how screw diameter, penetration length, and aperture ratio affect self-tapping screw (STS) withdrawal resistance in bamboo/wood-oriented strand board (WOSB/BOSB) to increase bamboo use in construction and furniture. It proposes a widely applicable empirical formula for calculating withdrawal resistance. With its high specific strength, uniformity, and STS withdrawal resistance, BOSB is a promising material for engineering and furniture applications, according to experiments. Screw diameter, penetration length, and aperture ratio significantly influence the STS’s withdrawal behavior. Among these, screw diameter and penetration length are the primary factors affecting screw withdrawal behavior. As the two factors increase, withdrawal resistance increases linearly. However, the relationship between withdrawal resistance and aperture ratio is non-linear, initially increasing and then decreasing as the aperture ratio increases. With an optimal mounting aperture ratio, the STS withdrawal forces in the BOSB face and edge are approximately 3 and 3.5 times greater than in WOSB, respectively. Traditional formulas for withdrawal resistance were refined based on the fitting equation of aperture ratio and withdrawal force, significantly reducing the relative errors of the modified formulas. Notably, the withdrawal resistance results for STSs calculated using the refined equation based on the CCMC 13677-R standard achieve an accuracy of up to 93%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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30 pages, 9607 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Planting Density and Climatic Variables on the Wood Structure of Siberian Spruce and Scots Pine

by Elena A. Babushkina, Yulia A. Kholdaenko, Liliana V. Belokopytova, Dina F. Zhirnova, Nariman B. Mapitov, Tatiana V. Kostyakova, Konstantin V. Krutovsky and Eugene A. Vaganov

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111622 - 23 Oct 2025

Abstract

Stand density is one among a multitude of factors impacting the growth of trees and their responses to climatic variables, but its effect on wood quality at the scale of anatomical structure is hardly investigated. Therefore, we analyzed the radial growth and wood [...] Read more.

Stand density is one among a multitude of factors impacting the growth of trees and their responses to climatic variables, but its effect on wood quality at the scale of anatomical structure is hardly investigated. Therefore, we analyzed the radial growth and wood structure of Siberian spruce (Picea obovata Ledeb.) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in an experimental conifer plantation with a wide gradient of stand density in the Siberian southern taiga. The measured and indexed chronologies of the tree-ring width (TRW), number of tracheid cells per radial row in the ring produced in the cambial zone (N), cell radial diameter (D), and cell wall thickness (CWT) demonstrated the influence of the planting density. The TRW and N have a negative allometric dependence on the stand density (R² = 0.75–0.88), likely due to competition for resources. The consistent negative dependence of the D on the stand density (R² = 0.85–0.97) is log-linear and also seems to be related to tree size, while the CWT is not significantly dependent on the stand density. These findings can be used as insights in regulating cellular structure and procuring desired wood quality by silvicultural means. Both conifer species have similar climatic reactions. We observed significant suppression of TRW and D related to water deficit in May–July (both species), as well as frosty (more for pine) and low-snow (for spruce) conditions in winters, as shown by both dendroclimatic correlation and pointer year analysis. Temporal shifts in the climatic responses indicate later transition to latewood and growth cessation in sparse stands, especially in spruce. Better performance was observed in sparce and medium-density stands for both species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Climate Change on Tree-Ring Growth—2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 1587 KB

Open AccessArticle

Successive Planting of Eucalyptus grandis Plantations Reduce Soil Organic Carbon and Its Labile Fractions

by Zhi Zhao, Jingxing Tan, Xiao Luo, Renping Wan, Zhengchuan Liang, Xingcheng Zou, Ao Si, Sheng Wang, Junxi Hu, Shixing Zhou and Congde Huang

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111621 - 23 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a critical component of the soil carbon pool, significantly influencing soil fertility and forest ecosystem productivity. Eucalyptus grandis (Rose Gum), one of the most widely introduced and economically valuable fast-growing tree species worldwide, plays an indispensable role in [...] Read more.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a critical component of the soil carbon pool, significantly influencing soil fertility and forest ecosystem productivity. Eucalyptus grandis (Rose Gum), one of the most widely introduced and economically valuable fast-growing tree species worldwide, plays an indispensable role in pulpwood production, construction, and bioenergy, and is commonly established and managed in successive rotations in operational practice. Despite its importance, the effects of successive planting on SOC and its labile fractions in plantation soils remain poorly understood. In May 2017, a space-for-time substitution approach was employed to study the effects of successive planting of E. grandis plantations on SOC and its labile fractions, including dissolved organic carbon, light-fraction organic carbon, particulate organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon, and readily oxidizable carbon. The results indicated that the content of SOC and labile organic carbon (LOC) fractions declined concomitant with an increase in successive planting generations. Specifically, total SOC content significantly decreased from 12.63 g·kg⁻¹ in the first-generation forest to 9.37 g·kg⁻¹ in the third-generation forest. The contents of LOC fractions also showed a significant decrease from the first to the second generation, but the rate of this decline slowed in the third generation. The soil carbon pool management index (CPMI) decreased significantly from 100 in the control forest to 46.64 in the third-generation plantation. Redundancy analysis identified water-soluble nitrogen and total nitrogen as the principal common factors exerting influence over SOC and its labile fractions in E. grandis plantations. These findings indicate that successive planting of E. grandis in artificial forests primarily reduces SOC and LOC fractions by lowering soil nutrient content, leading to a decline in soil carbon pool quality. The findings of this study may help provide a scientific basis for the sustainable development of E. grandis plantations in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Carbon Management and Monitoring: Insight from Silvicultural Practices and Climate Change)

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14 pages, 1765 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Applying Stability Theory to Urban Green Space Management: A Case Study in Shanghai, China

by Xiangxu Liu, Handan Zhang, Ying Chen and Ruiqing Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111620 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Landscape structure significantly impacts ecosystem services, yet the stability of ecosystem services in urban green spaces has been insufficiently studied regarding landscape effects. In highly urbanized regions such as Shanghai, it remains unclear which landscape configurations can maintain consistently high and stable regulating [...] Read more.

Landscape structure significantly impacts ecosystem services, yet the stability of ecosystem services in urban green spaces has been insufficiently studied regarding landscape effects. In highly urbanized regions such as Shanghai, it remains unclear which landscape configurations can maintain consistently high and stable regulating services. By calculating the monthly values of regulating services in urban green space sites across five years, we investigated how landscape structure and urbanization influence the temporal stability of regulating service bundles along an urban gradient in Shanghai. Stability was measured as the inverse of the coefficient of the regulating service values, further decomposing it into average regulating service stability and regulating service asynchrony, following the ecological theory. Landscape structure metrics included area, fragmentation, and shape, while urbanization was measured as the proportion of impervious surface surrounding green space sites. The results showed that the stability of regulating service bundles was higher during spring or winter compared to summer and autumn. Overall, we found that fragmentation reduced the stability of regulating service bundles, whereas impervious surfaces had a positive effect, both acting through average regulating service stability. Our study promoted a framework for managing urban green spaces to sustain high and stable ecosystem services, highlighting the importance of preserving contiguous green areas to support sustainable urban planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Urban Green Space Ecosystem Services for Resilient and Sustainable Cities)

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21 pages, 11506 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rooftop Greening Units Framework and Design Roadshow with Load-Bearing Capacity for Low-Carbon Urban Renewal

by Zhixiang Zuo, Yiheng Liu, Yufei He, Wenyang Han and Yin Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1619; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111619 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

In the context of urban renewal, rooftop greening in old buildings plays a vital role in reducing carbon emissions and supporting carbon neutrality goals. This study evaluates the carbon capture capacity (T_CO₂) and efficiency (η_CO₂) of rooftop [...] Read more.

In the context of urban renewal, rooftop greening in old buildings plays a vital role in reducing carbon emissions and supporting carbon neutrality goals. This study evaluates the carbon capture capacity (T_CO₂) and efficiency (η_CO₂) of rooftop greening under load constraints by developing standardised greening units and mathematical models to quantify CO₂ absorption and self-weight load. Rooftop carbon capture performance is assessed by comparing the quantified T_CO₂ of each unit with the theoretical maximum and calculating overall η_CO₂. Three representative species—Hibiscus mutabilis, Prunus cerasifera ‘Atropurpurea’, and Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans—were examined. In single-planting mode, η_CO₂ was approximately 14% with no significant differences among groups, though T_CO₂ varied considerably, ranging from 6061.32 g·d⁻¹ for Hibiscus mutabilis to 1515.52 g·d⁻¹ for Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans. In mixed planting, η_CO₂ showed greater fluctuation, with species combinations of similar T_CO₂ enhancing efficiency. Findings demonstrate that rooftop greening can effectively expand urban green spaces, improve species diversity, and promote ecological balance, while providing a systematic evaluation framework for low-carbon renovation strategies in urban renewal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forests and Greening for Sustainable Cities)

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19 pages, 2656 KB

Open AccessArticle

Foliar Nutritional Status Influences Herbivory Caused by Gonipterus platensis in Eucalyptus globulus, E. nitens and Their Hybrids

by Clara Ricci, Regis Le-Feuvre, Matías Pincheira, Claudia Bonomelli, Rafael Rubilar and Priscila Moraga-Suazo

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1618; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111618 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Eucalyptus plantations worldwide experience significant productivity losses due to herbivory caused by the weevil Gonipterus platensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae. Marelli 1927); however, the role of leaf nutritional status in host preference remains poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the incidence and severity of [...] Read more.

Eucalyptus plantations worldwide experience significant productivity losses due to herbivory caused by the weevil Gonipterus platensis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae. Marelli 1927); however, the role of leaf nutritional status in host preference remains poorly understood. In this study, we evaluated the incidence and severity of defoliation on two seed-propagated eucalypts—Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and Eucalyptus nitens Maiden, as well as two clonally propagated E. nitens × E. globulus hybrids—at a trial site in Mulchén, Chile. Sampling occurred after peak weevil activity (December 2022) and during austral autumn (May 2023). We determined foliar concentrations of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), boron (B), carbon (C), and the carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, and analyzed their relationships with herbivory using ANOVA, principal component analysis (PCA), and linear regression. Overall defoliation was low (<7%), but significantly higher on E. globulus, with hybrids exhibiting intermediate damage. Seasonally, N and Mg concentrations declined, while K and Ca levels increased, resulting in an elevated C/N ratio in autumn. A positive correlation was observed between leaf Ca concentration and both the incidence and severity of herbivory during peak activity in the susceptible E. globulus genotype (R² = 0.96, p < 0.05). These findings suggest that calcium accumulation may influence weevil feeding preferences. Further research should explore nutrient-mediated resistance to guide selection and fertilization strategies for developing more resilient eucalyptus varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)

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24 pages, 4441 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Uncertainty of Traditional Sample-Based Forest Inventories in Mixed and Single Species Conifer Systems Using a Digital Forest Twin

by Mikhail Kondratev, Mark V. Corrao, Ryan Armstrong and Alistar M. S. Smith

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111617 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Forest managers need regular accurate assessments of forest conditions to make informed decisions associated with harvest schedules, growth projections, merchandising, investment, and overall management planning. Traditionally, this is achieved through field-based sampling (i.e., timber cruising) a subset of the trees within a desired [...] Read more.

Forest managers need regular accurate assessments of forest conditions to make informed decisions associated with harvest schedules, growth projections, merchandising, investment, and overall management planning. Traditionally, this is achieved through field-based sampling (i.e., timber cruising) a subset of the trees within a desired area (e.g., 1%–2%) through stratification of the landscape to group similar vegetation structures and apply a grid within each stratum where fixed- or variable-radius sample locations (i.e., plots) are installed to gather information used to estimate trees throughout the unmeasured remainder of the area. These traditional approaches are often limited in their assessment of uncertainty until trees are harvested and processed. However, the increasing availability of airborne laser scanning datasets in commercial forestry processed into Digital Inventories^® enables the ability to non-destructively assess the accuracy of these field-based surveys, which are commonly referred to as cruises. In this study, we assess the uncertainty of common field sampling-based estimation methods by comparing them to a population of individual trees developed using established and validated methods and in operational use on the University of Idaho Experimental Forest (UIEF) and a commercial conifer plantation in Louisiana, USA (PLLP). A series of repeated sampling experiments, representing over 90 million simulations, were conducted under industry-standard cruise specifications, and the resulting estimates are compared against the population values. The analysis reveals key limitations in current sampling approaches, highlighting biases and inefficiencies inherent in certain specifications. Specifically, methods applied to handle edge plots (i.e., measurements conducted on or near the boundary of a sampling stratum), and stratum delineation contributes most significantly to systematic bias in estimates of the mean and variance around the mean. The study also shows that conventional estimators, designed for perfectly randomized experiments, are highly sensitive to plot location strategies in field settings, leading to potential inaccurate estimations of BAA and TPA. Overall, the study highlights the challenges and limitations of traditional forest sampling and impacts specific sampling design decisions can have on the reliability of key statistical estimates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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20 pages, 9369 KB

Open AccessArticle

Delineating Ecological Restoration Zoning Integrating Functional and Structural Models in Horqin Sandy Land, China

by Wenting Zhang, Yirong Fan, Qin Qiao, Guomei Shao, Meijuan Zhang, Shuo Lei and Yongwei Han

Forests 2025, 16(11), 1616; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16111616 - 22 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Escalating human–land conflicts have exacerbated ecosystem degradation, threatening regional sustainable development. As the largest sandy land in China, the Horqin Sandy Land (HSL) in eastern Inner Mongolia exhibits high ecological fragility. Delineating ecological restoration zones (ERZ) is critical to transition from localized restoration [...] Read more.

Escalating human–land conflicts have exacerbated ecosystem degradation, threatening regional sustainable development. As the largest sandy land in China, the Horqin Sandy Land (HSL) in eastern Inner Mongolia exhibits high ecological fragility. Delineating ecological restoration zones (ERZ) is critical to transition from localized restoration to system-wide stability, thereby enhancing regional ecological security, which reflects ecosystem health and integrity. Ecological security patterns (ESP), as spatial configurations that support and maintain ecological security, serve as the foundational framework for ERZ planning. Unlike conventional applications of InVEST and MSPA, this study integrates an ecosystem service assessment with morphological spatial pattern analysis (MSPA) under a “Source–Resistance–Corridor–Note” paradigm to develop a novel “ecological network–zoning” approach. This framework transforms ecological connectivity analysis into actionable restoration zoning, bridging theoretical ESP construction with practical management needs. Key findings include the following: (1) In total, 76 vital ecological source regions were mapped, representing about 10,204.38 km² of ecologically significant land, with primary distribution in the northwestern mountainous regions; (2) A total of 169 ecological corridors were extracted, spanning 4071.94 km in length. Ecological pinch points with 239.91 km² and barrier points with 568.85 km² were systematically identified; (3) A “Five Zones, Three Belts, One Core” spatial strategy was proposed, aligning with regional ecological conditions and development goals. This study provides a transferable methodology for ecosystem restoration in global arid and semi-arid regions, bridging theoretical frameworks with actionable zoning practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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