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Editor’s Choice Articles

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

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26 pages, 2867 KiB  
Review
Understanding the Ecosystem Services of Riparian Forests: Patterns, Gaps, and Global Trends
by Lucian Dinca, Gabriel Murariu and Mariana Lupoae
Forests 2025, 16(6), 947; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16060947 - 4 Jun 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1366
Abstract
Riparian forests are usually situated between terrestrial and aquatic systems. They play an essential role in the health of the environment and in providing complex ecosystem services. This is especially essential in arid and semi-arid regions. However, despite these facts, riparian ecosystems are [...] Read more.
Riparian forests are usually situated between terrestrial and aquatic systems. They play an essential role in the health of the environment and in providing complex ecosystem services. This is especially essential in arid and semi-arid regions. However, despite these facts, riparian ecosystems are underexplored in the specialty literature. As such, the purpose of this study is to address this gap by synthesizing the current knowledge about riparian forests, using both a bibliometric analysis and a qualitative literature approach. This analysis allowed us to identify six main ecosystem services provided by riparian forests: biodiversity support, carbon sequestration, water quality regulation, slope stability, pollution mitigation, and sociocultural benefits. Furthermore, we have emphasized local challenges (deforestation, agricultural expansion, a lack of policies). Connecting ecological knowledge with a socio-cultural context is the first step in creating a strong foundation for the adequate management of these essential ecosystems, while also supporting their conservation, development and climate resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functions in Forests)
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23 pages, 5905 KiB  
Article
Genome-Wide Identification and Expression Analysis of AT-Hook Motif Nuclear Localized Gene Family in Birch
by Bowei Chen, Huaixue Chu, Bin Lv, Yile Guo, Zihui Zhang, Tianxu Zhang, Qingyi Xie, Menghan Hao, Shahid Ali, Wei Zhou, Liping Zhao, Zan Jiang, Min Wang and Linan Xie
Forests 2025, 16(6), 943; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16060943 - 4 Jun 2025
Viewed by 586
Abstract
The AT-hook motif nuclear localized (AHL) gene family encodes transcription factors pivotal in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to abiotic stimuli, including low temperature, salinity, darkness, and drought. In this study, we systematically identified 21 BpAHL genes in birch and [...] Read more.
The AT-hook motif nuclear localized (AHL) gene family encodes transcription factors pivotal in regulating plant growth, development, and responses to abiotic stimuli, including low temperature, salinity, darkness, and drought. In this study, we systematically identified 21 BpAHL genes in birch and characterized their sequence features, evolutionary relationships, and expression dynamics. Phylogenetic analysis classified BpAHLs into two clades (Clade-A and Clade-B) and three types (Type-I, -II, and -III), based on PPC domain and AT-hook motifs. Chromosomal mapping revealed an even distribution across nine chromosomes and one contig, with dispersed duplication events recognized as the major driver of BpAHL family expansion. Tissue-specific expression profiling uncovered striking divergence: Type-I BpAHLs displayed root-predominant expression, whereas Type-II/III BpAHLs were highly expressed in plant flowers and leaves. Notably, Type-II/III BpAHL genes in leaves showed distinct expression patterns in response to cold and heat stresses, while Type-I BpAHLs in roots were down-regulated under salt stress. This study provides a comprehensive phylogenomic and functional analysis of the AHLs in birch, providing insights into their roles in enhancing abiotic stress resilience in forest trees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)
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25 pages, 3799 KiB  
Review
Bibliometric Analysis of Argan (Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels) Research: Scientific Trends and Strategic Directions for Climate-Resilient Ecosystem Management
by Rajaa Timzioura, Sara Ezzine, Lahcen Benomar, Mohammed S. Lamhamedi, Abderrahim Ettaqy, Abdenbi Zine El Abidine, Hafida Zaher, Damase P. Khasa, Steeve Pepin and Younes Abbas
Forests 2025, 16(6), 892; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16060892 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 1060
Abstract
This study provides a bibliometric analysis of 926 scientific publications on Argania spinosa, representing the first investigation covering all aspects of the argan tree. By combining bibliometric performance indicators and scientific mapping, based on commonly used approaches in previous studies, the analysis [...] Read more.
This study provides a bibliometric analysis of 926 scientific publications on Argania spinosa, representing the first investigation covering all aspects of the argan tree. By combining bibliometric performance indicators and scientific mapping, based on commonly used approaches in previous studies, the analysis examines the evolution, structure, and gaps in argan-related research. The results reveal that scientific production accelerated after 1996 during an industrial exploitation period, driven by the emergence of women’s cooperatives, international certifications, and national development programs. Morocco dominates the argan research landscape, benefiting from targeted policy support, international collaborations, and the species’ endemic status. Two major research aspects were identified: the valuation of argan oil, focusing on its chemical and therapeutic properties; and ecological restoration, encompassing genetic diversity, reforestation practices, and climate adaptation strategies. Despite these advancements, critical gaps remain in operational reforestation, assisted migration, post-plantation monitoring, and the integration of ecological modeling. Research remains skewed toward oil valuation, with insufficient attention to long-term forest sustainability under climate change. Future efforts should adopt a multidisciplinary framework that integrates genomics, nursery innovation, biotechnology, molecular genetics, digital monitoring tools, and socio-institutional governance. Research should also emphasize optimizing by-product use, enhancing climate resilience, and promoting gender-equitable, community-based forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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21 pages, 10337 KiB  
Article
Study on Forest Growing Stock Volume in Kunming City Considering the Relationship Between Stand Density and Allometry
by Jing Zhang, Cheng Wang, Jinliang Wang, Xiang Huang, Zilin Zhou, Zetong Zhou and Feng Cheng
Forests 2025, 16(6), 891; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16060891 - 25 May 2025
Viewed by 548
Abstract
Forest growing stock volume (GSV) is a fundamental indicator for assessing the status of forest resources. It reflects forest carbon storage levels and serves as a key metric for evaluating the carbon sequestration capacity of forest ecosystems, thereby playing a crucial role in [...] Read more.
Forest growing stock volume (GSV) is a fundamental indicator for assessing the status of forest resources. It reflects forest carbon storage levels and serves as a key metric for evaluating the carbon sequestration capacity of forest ecosystems, thereby playing a crucial role in supporting national “dual-carbon” objectives. Traditional allometric models typically estimate GSV using tree species, diameter at breast height (DBH), and canopy height. However, at larger spatial scales, these models often neglect stand density, resulting in substantial estimation errors in regions characterized by significant density variability. To enhance the accuracy of large-scale GSV estimation, this study incorporates high-resolution, spatially continuous forest structural parameters—including dominant tree species, stand density, canopy height, and DBH—extracted through the synergistic utilization of active (e.g., Sentinel-1 SAR, ICESat-2 photon data) and passive (e.g., Landsat-8 OLI, Sentinel-2 MSI) multi-source remote sensing data. Within an allometric modeling framework, stand density is introduced as an additional explanatory variable. Subsequently, GSV is modeled in a stratified manner according to tree species across distinct ecological zones within Kunming City. The results indicate that: (1) the total estimated GSV of Kunming City in 2020, based on remote sensing imagery and second-class forest inventory data collected in the same year, was 1.01 × 108 m3, which closely aligns with contemporaneous statistical records. The model yielded an R2 of 0.727, an RMSE of 537.566 m3, and a MAE of 239.767 m3, indicating a high level of overall accuracy when validated against official ground-based inventory plots organized by provincial and municipal forestry authorities; (2) the incorporation of the dynamic stand density parameter significantly improved model performance, which elevated R2 from 0.565 to 0.727 and significantly reduced RMSE. This result confirms that stand density is a critical explanatory factor; and (3) GSV exhibited pronounced spatial heterogeneity across both tree species and administrative regions, underscoring the spatial structural variability of forests within the study area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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16 pages, 4249 KiB  
Article
Toward Safer Resin Tapping: Assessing Alternative Chemical Stimulants for Pinus pinaster
by Faustino Rubio Pérez, Aida Rodríguez-García, Santiago Michavila, Ana Rodríguez, Luis Gil and Rosana López
Forests 2025, 16(5), 849; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050849 - 19 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 740
Abstract
The use of chemical stimulants in resin tapping is essential for prolonging the resin flow and enhancing production. Traditional stimulants, primarily composed of sulfuric acid, pose concerns related to workplace safety, environmental impact, and tree health. In this study, we compared alternative stimulant [...] Read more.
The use of chemical stimulants in resin tapping is essential for prolonging the resin flow and enhancing production. Traditional stimulants, primarily composed of sulfuric acid, pose concerns related to workplace safety, environmental impact, and tree health. In this study, we compared alternative stimulant pastes containing ethrel, salicylic acid, and citric acid with the traditional Spanish and Brazilian stimulant pastes with higher contents of sulfuric acid. We tapped Pinus pinaster seedlings with five different stimulants, using untreated and mechanically wounded plants as controls. The resin yield, tree growth, and physiological parameters were compared. The pines stimulated with citric acid released ca. 50% more resin, while ethrel and salicylic acid yielded similar amounts to the traditional paste, suggesting their potential as viable alternatives. Although all stimulants reduced the seedling growth, no significant differences were observed in the midday water potential or stomatal conductance. The internal resin accumulation and resin canal density were strongly correlated with the total resin production, and more-acidic pastes tended to cause xylem damage and resin retention. Our findings suggest that moderate acidity is sufficient to trigger resin biosynthesis and release, and that safer, less corrosive formulations, like citric acid, may provide viable, safer, and more sustainable alternatives to conventional stimulants. While the results from the seedlings provide a rapid and cost-effective screening tool, anatomical and physiological differences from mature trees should be considered when extrapolating findings to operational settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technology for Extraction, Processing and Testing of Forest Products)
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23 pages, 3881 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Accuracy in Urban Tree Biomass Estimation: Developing Allometric Equations with Land Use Classifications
by Jeong-Min Lee, Hyung-Sub Kim, Byeonggil Choi, Jun-Young Jung, Seungmin Lee, Heejae Jo, Gaeun Kim, Sanggeun Kwon, Sang-Jin Lee, Tae Kyung Yoon, Choonsig Kim, Kye-Han Lee, Woo-Kyun Lee and Yowhan Son
Forests 2025, 16(5), 841; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050841 - 19 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 744
Abstract
Urban trees grow in diverse environments where site conditions and human management may influence their growth patterns. However, few allometric equations (AEs) have been developed for urban trees, and the effects of environmental variations across urban land use categories on tree biomass remain [...] Read more.
Urban trees grow in diverse environments where site conditions and human management may influence their growth patterns. However, few allometric equations (AEs) have been developed for urban trees, and the effects of environmental variations across urban land use categories on tree biomass remain largely unexplored. Therefore, this study developed urban land-use-specific AEs for major urban tree species in South Korea. We selected eight major urban tree species groups (at genus level), harvested 201 trees, and non-destructively measured the stem volumes of 1995 trees using a laser dendrometer. Species-specific and generalized AEs to estimate stem volume were developed under three urban land use categories: street trees, urban parks, and others. The results indicated that differences in stem volume across urban land use categories varied by species, with street trees generally showing smaller stem volumes. Furthermore, due to the high variation in stem volume within species, sampling designs that encompass diverse size distributions are necessary when developing AEs for urban trees. Our findings indicate that various factors in urban environments influence tree volume and considering these differences is essential for improving biomass estimation accuracy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
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28 pages, 4569 KiB  
Review
Remote Sensing of Forest Above-Ground Biomass Dynamics: A Review
by Yuzhen Zhang, Yiming Zou and Yiwen Wang
Forests 2025, 16(5), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050821 - 15 May 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1453
Abstract
Recent studies have primarily focused on estimating forest above-ground biomass (AGB) at single time points, with limited attention to temporal changes. However, time-series remote sensing data offer valuable insights into biomass trends, drivers of change, and forest recovery following disturbance, deepening our understanding [...] Read more.
Recent studies have primarily focused on estimating forest above-ground biomass (AGB) at single time points, with limited attention to temporal changes. However, time-series remote sensing data offer valuable insights into biomass trends, drivers of change, and forest recovery following disturbance, deepening our understanding of forest dynamics. This review synthesized 166 studies published between 2010 and 2024 (15 years) on forest biomass changes or dynamics monitored through remote sensing, with an emphasis on temporal datasets and both indirect (83.7%) and direct (16.3%) methods for estimating AGB changes, as well as the key drivers of these changes. A meta-analysis of AGB change estimates revealed that 81.5% of studies operated at spatial resolutions below 100 m, while only a few studies addressed coarser scales. Notably, just 11.9% of the studies used independent validation, and 8.8% of studies reported no validation at all, underscoring the need for more rigorous accuracy assessment to ensure methodological reliability and ecological relevance. This review also discusses key challenges, limitations, and future directions for improved remote sensing-based AGB change monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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29 pages, 4155 KiB  
Review
Global Meta-Analysis of Mangrove Primary Production: Implications for Carbon Cycling in Mangrove and Other Coastal Ecosystems
by Daniel M. Alongi
Forests 2025, 16(5), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16050747 - 27 Apr 2025
Viewed by 2117
Abstract
Mangrove forests are among the most productive vascular plants on Earth. The gross (GPP) and aboveground forest net primary production (ANPP) correlate positively with precipitation. ANPP also correlates inversely with porewater salinity. The main drivers of the forest primary production are the porewater [...] Read more.
Mangrove forests are among the most productive vascular plants on Earth. The gross (GPP) and aboveground forest net primary production (ANPP) correlate positively with precipitation. ANPP also correlates inversely with porewater salinity. The main drivers of the forest primary production are the porewater salinity, rainfall, tidal inundation frequency, light intensity, humidity, species age and composition, temperature, nutrient availability, disturbance history, and geomorphological setting. Wood production correlates positively with temperature and rainfall, with rates comparable to tropical humid forests. Litterfall accounts for 55% of the NPP which is greater than previous estimates. The fine root production is highest in deltas and estuaries and lowest in carbonate and open-ocean settings. The GPP and NPP exhibit large methodological and regional differences, but mangroves are several times more productive than other coastal blue carbon habitats, excluding macroalgal beds. Mangroves contribute 4 to 28% of coastal blue carbon fluxes. The mean and median canopy respiration equate to 1.7 and 2.7 g C m−2 d−1, respectively, which is higher than previous estimates. Mangrove ecosystem carbon fluxes are currently in balance. However, the global mangrove GPP has increased from 2001 to 2020 and is forecast to continue increasing to at least 2100 due to the strong fertilization effect of rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mangrove Forest Ecosystems: Present Status, Challenges, and Future Directions)
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25 pages, 4527 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Urban Green Spaces for Vegetation-Based Carbon Sequestration: The Role of Landscape Spatial Structure in Zhengzhou Parks, China
by Chenyu Du, Shidong Ge, Peihao Song, Sándor Jombach, Albert Fekete and István Valánszki
Forests 2025, 16(4), 679; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040679 - 13 Apr 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1057
Abstract
Urban parks serve as essential carbon sinks in cities, mitigating climate change by sequestering atmospheric CO2. Maximizing the carbon sequestration potential within constrained urban spaces is a critical step toward carbon neutrality. However, few studies have systematically examined how the internal [...] Read more.
Urban parks serve as essential carbon sinks in cities, mitigating climate change by sequestering atmospheric CO2. Maximizing the carbon sequestration potential within constrained urban spaces is a critical step toward carbon neutrality. However, few studies have systematically examined how the internal spatial composition and shape of green spaces affect their vegetation carbon sequestration capacity. This study analyzes the relationship between landscape indices and vegetation carbon sequestration density (VCSD) using field surveys and high-resolution remote sensing data from 123 urban parks in Zhengzhou, China. The results indicate that Zhengzhou’s parks sequester 14.03 Gg C yr−1, with a VCSD of 0.53 kg C m−2 yr−1. Significant differences in VCSD were observed among park types, with theme parks having the highest average VCSD (0.69 kg C m−2 yr−1) and community parks the lowest (0.43 kg C m−2 yr−1). The key drivers primarily consist of landscape indices that characterize green space distribution and configuration, including the proportion of green space (Pg), largest green patch index (LPI), number of green patches (NP), green patch dispersion index (SPL), and landscape shape index (LSI), with specific thresholds identified for each. Based on these findings, category-specific spatial composition strategies are proposed to precisely enhance the carbon sequestration of park vegetation. This study provides actionable guidance for urban park designers to maximize the carbon sequestration potential of green spaces, thereby mitigating climate change and promoting human health and well-being through green space design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Designing Urban Green Spaces in a Changing Climate)
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23 pages, 5096 KiB  
Review
Engineered Bamboo Building Materials: Types, Production, and Applications
by Mahdi Hosseini, Milan Gaff, Yang Wei and Chaoyu Tu
Forests 2025, 16(4), 662; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16040662 - 10 Apr 2025
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2273
Abstract
The challenges highlighted at the 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29) emphasize the importance of using renewable resources in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The building and construction sector is a major contributor to environmental pollution, with most emissions stemming from [...] Read more.
The challenges highlighted at the 29th Conference of the Parties (COP29) emphasize the importance of using renewable resources in the architecture, engineering, and construction (AEC) industry. The building and construction sector is a major contributor to environmental pollution, with most emissions stemming from the extraction, transportation, production, and disposal of construction materials. As a result, developing renewable building materials is essential. In the past decade, bamboo has gained significant attention from researchers due to its strength, sustainability, high yield, and rapid growth. Bamboo in its original form has been used in construction for centuries, and recent innovations have led to the creation of engineered bamboo materials designed for more versatile applications. Researchers have been focused on understanding the physical and mechanical properties of engineered bamboo to assess its potential as a sustainable alternative to traditional building materials. However, modern practitioners are still unfamiliar with engineered bamboo materials, their types, and where they can be used. This article highlights the most widely researched engineered bamboo materials that have been used in the construction of small architectural forms and bigger structures. It provides an overview of common engineered bamboo building materials, namely laminated bamboo lumber, laminated bamboo sheets, parallel strand bamboo, bamboo mat boards, and bamboo particleboards, and their manufacturing processes and applications, offering valuable information for current practitioners and future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novelties in Wood Engineering and Forestry—2nd Edition)
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22 pages, 4239 KiB  
Article
How Natural Regeneration After Severe Disturbance Affects Ecosystem Services Provision of Andean Forest Soils at Contrasting Timescales
by Juan Ortiz, Marcelo Panichini, Pablo Neira, Carlos Henríquez-Castillo, Rocio E. Gallardo Jara, Rodrigo Rodriguez, Ana Mutis, Camila Ramos, Winfred Espejo, Ramiro Puc-Kauil, Erik Zagal, Neal Stolpe, Mauricio Schoebitz, Marco Sandoval and Francis Dube
Forests 2025, 16(3), 456; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030456 - 4 Mar 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1209
Abstract
Chile holds ~50% of temperate forests in the Southern Hemisphere, thus constituting a genetic–ecological heritage. However, intense anthropogenic pressures have been inducing distinct forest structural-regeneration patterns. Accordingly, we evaluated 22 soil properties at 0–5 and 5–20 cm depths in two protected sites, with [...] Read more.
Chile holds ~50% of temperate forests in the Southern Hemisphere, thus constituting a genetic–ecological heritage. However, intense anthropogenic pressures have been inducing distinct forest structural-regeneration patterns. Accordingly, we evaluated 22 soil properties at 0–5 and 5–20 cm depths in two protected sites, with similar perturbation records but contrasting post-disturbance regeneration stages: long-term secondary forest (~50 y) (SECFORST) (dominated by Chusquea sp.-understory) and a short-term forest after disturbance (~5 y) (FADIST) within a Nothofagus spp. forest to determine the potential of these soils to promote nutrient availability, water cycling, soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration (CO2→SOC), and microbiome. Results detected 93 correlations (r ≥ 0.80); however, no significant differences (p < 0.05) in physical or chemical properties, except for infiltration velocity (+27.97%), penetration resistance (−23%), SOC (+5.64%), and % Al saturation (+5.64%) relative to SECFORST, and a consistent trend of suitable values 0–5 > 5–20 cm were estimated. The SOC→CO2 capacity reached 4.2 ± 0.5 (FADIST) and 2.7 ± 0.2 Mg C y−1 (SECFORST) and only microbial abundance shifts were observed. These findings provide relevant insights on belowground resilience, evidenced by similar ecosystem services provision capacities over time, which may be influenced progressively by opportunistic Chusquea sp. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Does Forest Management Affect Soil Dynamics?)
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31 pages, 1788 KiB  
Review
The Myth That Eucalyptus Trees Deplete Soil Water—A Review
by Priscila Lira de Medeiros, Alexandre Santos Pimenta, Neyton de Oliveira Miranda, Rafael Rodolfo de Melo, Jhones da Silva Amorim and Tatiane Kelly Barbosa de Azevedo
Forests 2025, 16(3), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030423 - 26 Feb 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6204
Abstract
The increase in demand for timber and global eucalyptus cultivation has generated controversy regarding its potential impact on water resources, especially in regions with limited water availability, with the myth that “eucalyptus dries out the soil” being spread. In this regard, this review [...] Read more.
The increase in demand for timber and global eucalyptus cultivation has generated controversy regarding its potential impact on water resources, especially in regions with limited water availability, with the myth that “eucalyptus dries out the soil” being spread. In this regard, this review study addresses the factors that influence water consumption by eucalyptus, providing solutions to reduce, mitigate, or even avoid any impact on water resources at a given site. In this manuscript, the authors reviewed 200 works published from 1977 to 2024 to survey all information to confirm if the factual background allows someone to state if eucalyptus can deplete soil water. With a solid scientific basis, many research studies show that eucalyptus’ water demand is comparable to that of native forest species and crops worldwide and that species, age, edaphoclimatic conditions, and forest management practices mainly influence water consumption. On the other hand, it is a hasty conclusion that some eucalyptus species can contribute to reduced soil water. Effectively, without proper management, the environmental impacts of a eucalyptus plantation are the same as those of poorly managed crops. Indeed, if cultivated with proper agroclimatic zoning and correct management practices, the growth of eucalyptus culture is an environmentally correct activity. By adopting measures such as maintaining sufficient native forest cover to ensure ecosystem services, cultivation based on zoning maps, and considering local specificities (e.g., deeper, sandier soils are preferable), selection of species appropriate to the carrying capacity of each region, adoption of lower planting densities, and reduced rotation, eucalyptus cultivation will not negatively affect water resources. Sustainable eucalyptus cultivation has several economic and environmental benefits, in addition to positive social impacts on surrounding communities in terms of employment and family income, and its sustainable management can guarantee its viability, demystifying the idea that eucalyptus trees cause water scarcity. The works reviewed herein demonstrated no solid ground to sustain the eucalyptus’ water depletion myth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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18 pages, 6921 KiB  
Article
Terrestrial Laser Scanning for Estimating the Volume and Biomass of Coniferous Stems in the Mariposa Monarca Biosphere Reserve, Mexico
by José Antonio Hernández-Moreno, Alejandro Velázquez-Martínez, Diego R. Pérez-Salicrup, Felipe Bravo, David W. MacFarlane and Valentín J. Reyes-Hernández
Forests 2025, 16(2), 334; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020334 - 13 Feb 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2727
Abstract
The accurate estimation of tree volume and biomass is necessary for forest ecosystems management. However, traditional estimation methods are expensive, require a large amount of labor and materials, and may involve destructive sampling. In this study, a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) and free [...] Read more.
The accurate estimation of tree volume and biomass is necessary for forest ecosystems management. However, traditional estimation methods are expensive, require a large amount of labor and materials, and may involve destructive sampling. In this study, a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS) and free software were used to estimate the volume and biomass of the stems of individual trees from two coniferous species, Abies religiosa (Kunth) Schltdl. & Cham and Pinus pseudostrobus Lindl, in the Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), Michoacan, Mexico. TLS is an alternative to traditional measurement methods, which allows tree measurements to be extracted from a point cloud, opening up new opportunities to characterize the volume and biomass of standing trees. The simple linear regression analysis comparing stem volume and biomass estimates from different methods shows that the Vol_TLS and Vol_TModel relationship provides a better fit (R2 = 0.97, RMSE = 0.351 m3) compared to the Vol_TLS and Vol_OModel relationship (R2 = 0.93, RMSE = 0.537 m3). However, comparisons between measurements with predictive models (from destructive methods) and TLS (a non-destructive method) did not show significant differences. The results show that this increasingly accessible technology can be used to adequately estimate forest biomass and volume in a non-destructive manner, which is particularly important in places such as the MMBR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Active and Passive Remote Sensors in the Forest Inventory)
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14 pages, 2561 KiB  
Article
Wood Species Differentiation: A Comparative Study of Direct Analysis in Real-Time and Chromatography Mass Spectrometry
by Ilena Isak, Harriet Laura Newson and Tripti Singh
Forests 2025, 16(2), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020255 - 30 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1820
Abstract
This study reports for the first time the fingerprinting extractives analysis of the indigenous wood species of Podocarpus totara from New Zealand, Eucalyptus saligna from Australia and Pinus radiata imported from California, USA and grown in New Zealand. We evaluated the use of [...] Read more.
This study reports for the first time the fingerprinting extractives analysis of the indigenous wood species of Podocarpus totara from New Zealand, Eucalyptus saligna from Australia and Pinus radiata imported from California, USA and grown in New Zealand. We evaluated the use of analytical techniques for wood species discrimination. We compared the chemical fingerprinting of extractive compounds obtained using traditional chromatographic techniques with direct analysis in real-time–time of flight-mass spectrometry (DART-TOF-MS) with the auxiliary of chemometrics and principal component analysis. The traditional wet chemistry analysis of wood extracts provided a comprehensive characterisation of all extractive components. However, the more eco-friendly, sustainable and faster DART-TOF-MS technique effectively distinguished between wood species when heartwood and sapwood samples were combined. Notably, neither wet chemistry nor DART-TOF-MS could clearly differentiate between heartwood and sapwood within the same wood species. DART-TOF-MS analysis demonstrates potential as a reliable quality control tool for identifying wood species necessary in commercial and timber trading markets as well as for detecting the illicit trade of counterfeit wood products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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12 pages, 2614 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Tree Spacing on the Growth and Biomass of Wattle Trees in Northwestern Ethiopia
by Saifu Amanuel, Qijing Liu, Andualem Genetu and Anteneh Yenesew
Forests 2025, 16(2), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020251 - 29 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1443
Abstract
The wattle tree (Acacia mearnsii) is gaining importance as an exotic species in northwestern Ethiopia, providing ecological, environmental, and economic benefits, especially for fuelwood and charcoal production. This study aimed to investigate the effect of tree spacing on the growth and [...] Read more.
The wattle tree (Acacia mearnsii) is gaining importance as an exotic species in northwestern Ethiopia, providing ecological, environmental, and economic benefits, especially for fuelwood and charcoal production. This study aimed to investigate the effect of tree spacing on the growth and biomass of wattle trees. The study employed a randomized complete block design with three replications across three spacing treatments (0.5 m × 0.5 m, 1 m × 1 m, and 1.5 m × 1.5 m) in the Fagita district. Tree height and diameter measurements were taken at 12, 18, and 30 months post-planting from stands established in 2021. The results showed significant differences in tree height among the spacing treatments at 18 and 30 months. The closest spacing (0.5 m × 0.5 m) yielded the highest average tree heights of 32.12 cm, 84.86 cm, and 302.98 cm at 12, 18, and 30 months, respectively. At 18 months, the largest average diameter (1.22 cm) was found in the narrowest spacing (0.5 m × 0.5 m), whereas at 30 months, the widest spacing (1.5 m × 1.5 m) recorded the largest diameter (1.51 cm). Throughout the study, height, diameter, and average aboveground biomass exhibited an inverse relationship with spacing, with this effect diminishing as trees aged. Tree spacing significantly impacted average aboveground biomass at 18 months, with the densest spacing (0.5 m × 0.5 m) yielding the highest average aboveground biomass (1.97 kg at 18 months and 2.41 kg at 30 months). Average aboveground biomass increased as the trees matured. These findings suggest that closer spacing of A. mearnsii can enhance biomass production, positioning it as a promising candidate for energy generation. Leveraging these insights can optimize resource utilization while supporting global energy demands and reforestation initiatives aimed at carbon sequestration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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14 pages, 1704 KiB  
Article
Soil Aggregation, Aggregate Stability, and Associated Soil Organic Carbon in Huron Mountains Forests, Michigan, USA
by Xiaoyong Chen, Timothy Gsell, John Yunger, Lynda Randa, Yuanying Peng and Mary Carrington
Forests 2025, 16(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020219 - 24 Jan 2025
Viewed by 2726
Abstract
Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a critical role in regulating the global carbon (C) cycle, with forest soils serving as significant C sinks. Soil aggregate stability and the distribution of SOC in different aggregate fractions would be affected by different forest types. In [...] Read more.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) plays a critical role in regulating the global carbon (C) cycle, with forest soils serving as significant C sinks. Soil aggregate stability and the distribution of SOC in different aggregate fractions would be affected by different forest types. In this study, we investigate the distribution and dynamics of SOC within different soil aggregate fractions across three main forest types in the Huron Mountains, Michigan, USA: white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest, eastern-hemlock-dominated forest, and sugar maple forest. We hypothesize that variations in species composition and soil depth influence SOC storage and aggregate stability through mechanisms such as root interactions, microbial activity, and soil structure development. Soil samples were collected from three depth intervals (0–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm) and analyzed for aggregate size distribution and SOC content. The results showed that aggregate size distribution and SOC stocks differ significantly across forest types, with the white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest exhibiting the highest proportion of large aggregates (>1.0 mm), which contribute to more stable soil structures. This forest type also had the highest total aggregate mass and mean weight diameter, indicating enhanced soil stability. In contrast, sugar maple forest displayed a greater proportion of smaller aggregates and a lower macroaggregate-to-microaggregate ratio, suggesting fewer stable soils. SOC stocks were closely linked to aggregate size, with macroaggregates containing the highest proportion of SOC. These differences in SOC distribution and soil aggregate stability can be attributed to several underlying mechanisms, including variations in plant root interactions, microbial activity, and the physical properties of the soil. Forests with diverse species compositions, such as the white birch–eastern hemlock mixed forest, tend to support more complex root systems and microbial communities, leading to improved soil aggregation and greater SOC storage. Additionally, forest management practices such as selective thinning and mixed-species planting contribute to these processes by enhancing soil structure, increasing root biomass, and promoting soil microbial health. These interactions play a crucial role in enhancing C sequestration and improving soil health. Our findings emphasized the importance of forest composition in influencing SOC dynamics and soil stability, offering insights into the role of forest management in C sequestration and soil health. This study provided a reference to a deeper understanding of SOC storage potential in forest ecosystems and supports the development of sustainable forest management strategies to mitigate climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)
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31 pages, 6526 KiB  
Review
Remote Sensing Technology for Observing Tree Mortality and Its Influences on Carbon–Water Dynamics
by Mengying Ni, Qingquan Wu, Guiying Li and Dengqiu Li
Forests 2025, 16(2), 194; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16020194 - 21 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2346
Abstract
Trees are indispensable to ecosystems, yet mortality rates have been increasing due to the abnormal changes in forest growth environments caused by frequent extreme weather events associated with global climate warming. Consequently, the need to monitor, assess, and predict tree mortality has become [...] Read more.
Trees are indispensable to ecosystems, yet mortality rates have been increasing due to the abnormal changes in forest growth environments caused by frequent extreme weather events associated with global climate warming. Consequently, the need to monitor, assess, and predict tree mortality has become increasingly urgent to better address climate change and protect forest ecosystems. Over the past few decades, remote sensing has been widely applied to vegetation mortality observation due to its significant advantages. Here, we reviewed and analyzed the major research advancements in the application of remote sensing for tree mortality monitoring, using the Web of Science Core Collection database, covering the period from 1998 to the first half of 2024. We comprehensively summarized the use of different platforms (satellite and UAV) for data acquisition, the application of various sensors (multispectral, hyperspectral, and radar) as image data sources, the primary indicators, the classification models used in monitoring tree mortality, and the influence of tree mortality. Our findings indicated that satellite-based optical remote sensing data were the primary data source for tree mortality monitoring, accounting for 80% of existing studies. Time-series optical remote sensing data have emerged as a crucial direction for enhancing the accuracy of vegetation mortality monitoring. In recent years, studies utilizing airborne LiDAR have shown an increasing trend, accounting for 48% of UAV-based research. NDVI was the most commonly used remote sensing indicator, and most studies incorporated meteorological and climatic factors as environmental variables. Machine learning was increasingly favored for remote sensing data analysis, with Random Forest being the most widely used classification model. People are more focused on the impacts of tree mortality on water and carbon. Finally, we discussed the challenges in monitoring and evaluating tree mortality through remote sensing and offered perspectives for future developments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Forest Biomass and Carbon Dynamics Using Multiple Sources and Technologies)
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26 pages, 1977 KiB  
Review
Forest Soil Microbiomes: A Review of Key Research from 2003 to 2023
by Aurelia Onet, Paola Grenni, Cristian Onet, Vlad Stoian and Vlad Crisan
Forests 2025, 16(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010148 - 15 Jan 2025
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3144
Abstract
Forests have a key role in mitigating both non-biological and biological ecological disturbances. However, major disturbances (soil pollution, shift from native forest species to exoticones, forested watersheds and climate changes) can have different impacts on a forest’s soil microbiome. Because the soil microbial [...] Read more.
Forests have a key role in mitigating both non-biological and biological ecological disturbances. However, major disturbances (soil pollution, shift from native forest species to exoticones, forested watersheds and climate changes) can have different impacts on a forest’s soil microbiome. Because the soil microbial community of forests has a key role in a variety of ecosystem services that promote the forest’s health, this review tries to answer the following questions: (i) Which are the main ecological disturbances that drive the responses of the forest soil microbiome? (ii) How can we measure these changes? For this aim, the review summarizes details on the tree vegetation type, the microbial communities in forest ecosystems, and the mutual influence between plants, soil, and microbiomes. Microbial communities are shaped by factors such as soil type and composition, plant and vegetation types, nutrient levels and soil fertility, disturbance patterns, symbiotic associations, biotic interactions, and the progression of forest succession. Anthropogenic activities produce a rapid response in the microbial communities, leading to both short- and long-term alterations. Harvesting processes reduce drastically the microbiome diversity, forcing a shift from specialized to more generalist microorganisms. Restoration scenarios indicate a re-establishment of microbial communities to a level similar to the native forest, but with a high percentage of replaced native microorganisms. This review emphasizes that the forest soil microbiome is shaped by a range of environmental, ecological, and biotic factors. The primary drivers of the soil microbiome in forest ecosystems discussed in this review include soil composition and nutrient availability, plant community structure, microbial interactions within the soil, disturbances, succession, and temporal dynamics. When considered together, these factors interact in complex ways, influencing the diversity, function, and resilience of the soil microbiome in forest ecosystems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Does Forest Management Affect Soil Dynamics?)
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20 pages, 1558 KiB  
Review
The Potential of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) in the Hemiboreal Baltic Region: A Review
by Kaspars Liepiņš and Alise Bleive
Forests 2025, 16(1), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010109 - 9 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1751
Abstract
As European forests face increasing threats from climate change and disturbances, diversifying tree species can be a crucial strategy to safeguard their ecological functions and climate mitigation potential. European beech is a valuable tree species with a wide distribution across Central and Western [...] Read more.
As European forests face increasing threats from climate change and disturbances, diversifying tree species can be a crucial strategy to safeguard their ecological functions and climate mitigation potential. European beech is a valuable tree species with a wide distribution across Central and Western Europe. While the current natural distribution of European beech does not extend to the Baltic states, climate change models indicate a potential northward range expansion. This suggests the possibility of introducing beech to Baltic forests as a proactive measure to enhance the future resilience of local forests to climate variability. Beech’s ability to adapt to changing climate conditions, coupled with its potential to enhance biodiversity and provide high-quality timber, makes it an attractive option for forest managers. However, successful establishment and growth of beech in the Baltic region will depend on various factors, including competition with native species, soil conditions, and microclimate. Beech stands in southwestern Lithuania and Latvia, originating from diverse European populations, demonstrate good adaptation. Despite fragmentation, they can serve as sources for beech expansion. However, assisted migration may be crucial to support natural regeneration and ensure the species’ long-term viability in the region. To fully assess the potential benefits and risks of beech introduction, further research is needed to understand its ecological interactions with local species and its response to specific site conditions. By carefully considering these factors, forest managers can develop effective strategies to promote beech’s establishment and growth, ultimately contributing to the resilience and sustainability of Baltic forests in the face of climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synergies and Trade-Offs between Nature Conservation and Climate Mitigation in European Beech Forests)
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21 pages, 8678 KiB  
Article
First Results of a Geometric Morphometric Analysis of the Leaf Size and Shape Variation in Quercus petraea Across a Wide European Area
by Paola Fortini, Elisa Proietti, Srdjan Stojnic, Piera Di Marzio, Filippos A. Aravanopoulos, Raquel Benavides, Anna Loy and Romeo Di Pietro
Forests 2025, 16(1), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010070 - 4 Jan 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2100
Abstract
The high leaf morphological variability of European white oaks is largely documented in the botanical literature, and several papers have been published in the last two decades focusing on inter- and intraspecific leaf phenotypic plasticity. Studies involving landmark-based geometric morphometrics proved to be [...] Read more.
The high leaf morphological variability of European white oaks is largely documented in the botanical literature, and several papers have been published in the last two decades focusing on inter- and intraspecific leaf phenotypic plasticity. Studies involving landmark-based geometric morphometrics proved to be useful in highlighting relationships between leaf size and shape variation and environmental factors, phylogenetic patterns, or hybridization events. In this paper, the leaf size and shape variations of 18 populations of Quercus petraea distributed throughout a wide geographical area were analyzed by means of geometric morphometric methods (GMMs). This study involved 10 European countries and investigated the intraspecific leaf variability of Q. petraea within a wide latitudinal and longitudinal gradient. Analyses of variance for shape and centroid size were performed through Procrustes ANOVA. Multivariate analysis procedures, partial least squares method, and regression analyses were used to highlight possible patterns of covariation between leaf shape and size and geographical/environmental variables. The results revealed that the Q. petraea populations analyzed mainly differed in their leaf size, where a decrease was observed according to a north to south geographical gradient. Both leaf size and shape were found to be significantly related to latitude, and, to a lesser extent, to mean annual temperature and the leaf isotopic signature of 15N. All the other variables considered did not provide significant results. Unexpected differences observed comparing the leaf traits of geographically strictly adjacent populations suggest the involvement of local hybridization/introgression events. However, with a few exceptions, Q. petraea turned out to be quite conservative in its leaf shape and size at both the local and continental scale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)
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27 pages, 3310 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Correction Algorithms for Sentinel-2 Images Implemented in Google Earth Engine for Use in Land Cover Classification in Northern Spain
by Iyán Teijido-Murias, Marcos Barrio-Anta and Carlos A. López-Sánchez
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2192; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122192 - 12 Dec 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2718
Abstract
This study examined the effect of atmospheric, topographic, and Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) corrections of Sentinel-2 images implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE) for use in land cover classification. The study was carried out in an area of complex orography in northern [...] Read more.
This study examined the effect of atmospheric, topographic, and Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) corrections of Sentinel-2 images implemented in Google Earth Engine (GEE) for use in land cover classification. The study was carried out in an area of complex orography in northern Spain and made use of the Spanish National Forest Inventory plots and other systematically located plots to cover non-forest classes. A total of 2991 photo-interpreted ground plots and 15 Sentinel-2 images, acquired in summer at a spatial resolution of 10–20 m per pixel, were used for this purpose. The overall goal was to determine the optimal level of image correction in GEE for subsequent use in time series analysis of images for accurate forest cover classification. Particular attention was given to the classification of cover by the major commercial forest species: Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus nitens, Pinus pinaster, and Pinus radiata. The Second Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum (Py6S) algorithm, used for atmospheric correction, provided the best compromise between execution time and image size, in comparison with other algorithms such as Sentinel-2 Level 2A Processor (Sen2Cor) and Sensor Invariant Atmospheric Correction (SIAC). To correct the topographic effect, we tested the modified Sun-canopy-sensor topographic correction (SCS + C) algorithm with digital elevation models (DEMs) of three different spatial resolutions (90, 30, and 10 m per pixel). The combination of Py6S, the SCS + C algorithm and the high-spatial resolution DEM (10 m per pixel) yielded the greatest precision, which demonstrated the need to match the pixel size of the image and the spatial resolution of the DEM used for topographic correction. We used the Ross-Thick/Li-Sparse-Reciprocal BRDF to correct the variation in reflectivity captured by the sensor. The BRDF corrections did not significantly improve the accuracy of the land cover classification with the Sentinel-2 images acquired in summer; however, we retained this correction for subsequent time series analysis of the images, as we expected it to be of much greater importance in images with larger solar incidence angles. Our final proposed dataset, with image correction for atmospheric (Py6S), topographic (SCS + C), and BRDF (Ross-Thick/Li-Sparse-Reciprocal BRDF) effects and a DEM of spatial resolution 10 m per pixel, yielded better goodness-of-fit statistics than other datasets available in the GEE catalogue. The Sentinel-2 images currently available in GEE are therefore not the most accurate for constructing land cover classification maps in areas with complex orography, such as northern Spain. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems for Natural Resource Management of Forest Ecosystems)
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21 pages, 1243 KiB  
Review
Prospects for Oak Cultivation in Europe Under Changing Environmental Conditions and Increasing Pressure from Harmful Organisms
by Aneta Lyubenova, Marlena Baranowska, Audrius Menkis, Kateryna Davydenko, Justyna Nowakowska, Piotr Borowik and Tomasz Oszako
Forests 2024, 15(12), 2164; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15122164 - 8 Dec 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2326
Abstract
It is assumed that climate change (global warming) worsens the living conditions for conifers and at the same time favours the cultivation of deciduous trees, including oaks. In fact, in Poland, for example, many more oaks are now being planted as forest-forming tree [...] Read more.
It is assumed that climate change (global warming) worsens the living conditions for conifers and at the same time favours the cultivation of deciduous trees, including oaks. In fact, in Poland, for example, many more oaks are now being planted as forest-forming tree species than in the 1980s and 1990s. However, the monitoring of the health status of European forests (according to the International Co-operation Project) does not confirm these optimistic assumptions, and oak has been cited as one of the most damaged tree species in terms of defoliation in recent decades. The prospects for oak cultivation in European forestry are therefore a combination of abiotic conditions and biotic damage factors. This review article focuses in particular on the new threats posed by pathogenic organisms causing emerging diseases. These include newly identified bacteria responsible for the so-called Acute Oak Decline (AOD), oomycetes (especially those specialised in damaging fine roots, such as Phytophthora quercina T.Jung) and semi-parasites of the genus Loranthus. At the same time, the pressure from commonly observed insects and fungi described in connection with the complex syndrome of oak decline, which is divided into predisposing, inciting, and contributing factors (according to Manion’s disease spiral), has not abated. Therefore, international, interdisciplinary research (such as that proposed in Oakland) is needed, using modern technologies (RS remote sensing) based on the comparison of satellite images (from different years), not only to inventory the most valuable oak stands in Europe (microrefugia) but also to identify trends in changes in their condition and biodiversity. As RS has its limitations (e.g., resolution), aerial monitoring should be complemented by quantitative and qualitative inventory from the ground, e.g., monitoring of the presence of soil microorganisms using effective molecular biological methods (e.g., Next-Generation Sequencing NGS). Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)
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15 pages, 3144 KiB  
Article
Effect of Inoculation with Rhizosphere Phosphate-Solubilizing Bacteria on the Growth and Physiological Characteristics of Parashorea chinensis
by Zhongheng Hu, Shuang Wei, Wannian Li, Tong Wu, Saif Ullah and Mei Yang
Forests 2024, 15(11), 1932; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111932 - 1 Nov 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1759
Abstract
Given the challenges of slow growth and low survival rates in the early stages of Parashorea chinensis cultivation, identifying sustainable methods to enhance seedling performance is critical for successful reforestation and conservation efforts. This study aimed to address these by investigating the growth-promoting [...] Read more.
Given the challenges of slow growth and low survival rates in the early stages of Parashorea chinensis cultivation, identifying sustainable methods to enhance seedling performance is critical for successful reforestation and conservation efforts. This study aimed to address these by investigating the growth-promoting effects of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB). One-year-old seedlings of P. chinesis were inoculated with PSB strains isolated from the rhizosphere soil of Parashorea chinensis H. Wang plantations Y3, W5, H8, and a mixed strain (Mix), with inoculated seedling as a control (CK). The effects of inoculation on seedling growth, photosynthetic physiology, plant nutrient status, and physiological indicators were comprehensively evaluated. Results showed that PSB inoculation increased seedling height and basal diameter growth of P. chinensis, with an increase of 1.56 cm and 0.53 mm compared to CK, respectively, though the differences were not significant. The Mix treatment significantly improved photosynthesis, with increases in net photosynthetic rate (106.3%), transpiration rate (93.89%), and intercellular CO2 concentration (75.51%) compared to CK. Nutrient levels including total nitrogen, total phosphorus, and total potassium were significantly increased by 15.98%, 25.54%, and 32.12%, respectively, in the Mix treatments compared to CK. Moreover, stress resistance also improved, with higher proline content, soluble sugar, and soluble protein levels. Antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, and POD) were increased by 9.83%, 23.66%, and 292.32%, respectively, while MDA content was significantly reduced by 69.01%. The mixed strain treatment also significantly increased acid phosphatase activity by 111.88%. In conclusion, PSB inoculation, particularly with the mixed strain, promoted growth and nutrient uptake photosynthetic efficiency and stress resistance in P. chinensis seedlings, offering a promising biotechnological solution for improving seedling performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Forest Fertilization Strategies: Impact on Soil Quality, Ecosystem Health and Productivity)
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19 pages, 6528 KiB  
Article
Estimation of Tree Diameter at Breast Height from Aerial Photographs Using a Mask R-CNN and Bayesian Regression
by Kyeongnam Kwon, Seong-kyun Im, Sung Yong Kim, Ye-eun Lee and Chun Geun Kwon
Forests 2024, 15(11), 1881; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111881 - 25 Oct 2024
Viewed by 9873
Abstract
A probabilistic estimation model for forest biomass using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photography was developed. We utilized a machine-learning-based object detection algorithm, a mask region-based convolutional neural network (Mask R-CNN), to detect trees in aerial photographs. Subsequently, Bayesian regression was used to calibrate [...] Read more.
A probabilistic estimation model for forest biomass using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photography was developed. We utilized a machine-learning-based object detection algorithm, a mask region-based convolutional neural network (Mask R-CNN), to detect trees in aerial photographs. Subsequently, Bayesian regression was used to calibrate the model based on an allometric model using the estimated crown diameter (CD) obtained from aerial photographs and analyzed the diameter at breast height (DBH) data acquired through terrestrial laser scanning. The F1 score of the Mask R-CNN for individual tree detection was 0.927. Moreover, CD estimation using the Mask R-CNN was acceptable (rRMSE = 10.17%). Accordingly, the probabilistic DBH estimation model was successfully calibrated using Bayesian regression. A predictive distribution accurately predicted the validation data, with 98.6% and 56.7% of the data being within the 95% and 50% prediction intervals, respectively. Furthermore, the estimated uncertainty of the probabilistic model was more practical and reliable compared to traditional ordinary least squares (OLS). Our model can be applied to estimate forest biomass at the individual tree level. Particularly, the probabilistic approach of this study provides a benefit for risk assessments. Additionally, since the workflow is not interfered by the tree canopy, it can effectively estimate forest biomass in dense canopy conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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22 pages, 4658 KiB  
Article
Development and Application of Microsatellite Markers for Genetic Diversity Assessment and Construction of a Core Collection of Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh Germplasm from the Peruvian Amazon
by Juan C. Castro, Stalin J. Vasquez-Guizado, Bianca E. Vigil, Francisco Ascue, Naysha Rojas-Villa, Jae D. Paredes, Marianela Cobos, Carlos G. Castro, Daniel E. Motta, Pedro M. Adrianzén, Sixto A. Imán and J. Dylan Maddox
Forests 2024, 15(11), 1873; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15111873 - 25 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 10591
Abstract
The Amazonian shrub Myrciaria dubia (camu-camu) produces vitamin C-rich fruits of growing commercial interest. However, sustainable utilization requires assessment and protection of the genetic diversity of the available germplasm. This study aimed to develop and apply microsatellite markers to assess genetic diversity and [...] Read more.
The Amazonian shrub Myrciaria dubia (camu-camu) produces vitamin C-rich fruits of growing commercial interest. However, sustainable utilization requires assessment and protection of the genetic diversity of the available germplasm. This study aimed to develop and apply microsatellite markers to assess genetic diversity and construct a core collection of M. dubia germplasm from the Peruvian Amazon. Sixteen polymorphic microsatellite loci were developed using an enrichment approach. The evaluation of 336 genotypes from 43 accessions of the germplasm bank, originating from eight river basins, was conducted using these newly developed markers. Genetic diversity parameters, including observed and expected heterozygosity, were calculated. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) was performed to assess the distribution of genetic variation within and among accessions and river basins. Bayesian clustering analysis was employed to infer population structure. A core collection was constructed to maximize allelic richness. High genetic diversity was observed, with heterozygosity values ranging from 0.468 to 0.644 (observed) and 0.684 to 0.817 (expected) at the river basin level. AMOVA indicated significant genetic variation within (73–86%) compared to among (14–27%) accessions and river basins. Bayesian clustering detected ten genetic clusters, with several degrees of admixture among river basins, except for the genetically homogeneous Putumayo River basin. A core collection comprising 84 plant genotypes (25% of the full collection) was established, representing 90.82% of the overall allelic diversity. These results have important implications for M. dubia conservation strategies and breeding programs, in demonstrating a need for genetic connectivity between populations but preserving unique genetic resources in isolated basins. These results validate the expected levels of diversity and population subdivision in a crop and stress the need to secure genetically diverse germplasms, underscoring the importance of thorough genetic characterization for ex situ germplasm management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biodiversity in Forests: Management, Monitoring for Conservation)
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22 pages, 6601 KiB  
Article
Turbulent Energy and Carbon Fluxes in an Andean Montane Forest—Energy Balance and Heat Storage
by Charuta Murkute, Mostafa Sayeed, Franz Pucha-Cofrep, Galo Carrillo-Rojas, Jürgen Homeier, Oliver Limberger, Andreas Fries, Jörg Bendix and Katja Trachte
Forests 2024, 15(10), 1828; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101828 - 20 Oct 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1467
Abstract
High mountain rainforests are vital in the global energy and carbon cycle. Understanding the exchange of energy and carbon plays an important role in reflecting responses to climate change. In this study, an eddy covariance (EC) measurement system installed in the high Andean [...] Read more.
High mountain rainforests are vital in the global energy and carbon cycle. Understanding the exchange of energy and carbon plays an important role in reflecting responses to climate change. In this study, an eddy covariance (EC) measurement system installed in the high Andean Mountains of southern Ecuador was used. As EC measurements are affected by heterogeneous topography and the vegetation height, the main objective was to estimate the effect of the sloped terrain and the forest on the turbulent energy and carbon fluxes considering the energy balance closure (EBC) and the heat storage. The results showed that the performance of the EBC was generally good and estimated it to be 79.5%. This could be improved when the heat storage effect was considered. Based on the variability of the residuals in the diel, modifications in the imbalances were highlighted. Particularly, during daytime, the residuals were largest (56.9 W/m2 on average), with a clear overestimation. At nighttime, mean imbalances were rather weak (6.5 W/m2) and mostly positive while strongest underestimations developed in the transition period to morning hours (down to −100 W/m2). With respect to the Monin–Obukhov stability parameter ((z − d)/L) and the friction velocity (u*), it was revealed that the largest overestimations evolved in weak unstable and very stable conditions associated with large u* values. In contrast, underestimation was related to very unstable conditions. The estimated carbon fluxes were independently modelled with a non-linear regression using a light-response relationship and reached a good performance value (R2 = 0.51). All fluxes were additionally examined in the annual course to estimate whether both the energy and carbon fluxes resembled the microclimatological conditions of the study site. This unique study demonstrated that EC measurements provide valuable insights into land-surface–atmosphere interactions and contribute to our understanding of energy and carbon exchanges. Moreover, the flux data provide an important basis to validate coupled atmosphere ecosystem models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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31 pages, 4870 KiB  
Article
Factors Influencing the Faunal Recolonization of Restored Thornscrub Forest Habitats
by Audrey J. Hicks, Jerald T. Garrett and Christopher A. Gabler
Forests 2024, 15(10), 1833; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101833 - 20 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1871
Abstract
Tamaulipan thornscrub forests (thornforests) have high ecological and economic values, yet over 90% of these forests have been lost, and they remain threatened, making them a conservation hotspot. For decades, federal, state, NGO, and corporate entities have been acquiring land and actively or [...] Read more.
Tamaulipan thornscrub forests (thornforests) have high ecological and economic values, yet over 90% of these forests have been lost, and they remain threatened, making them a conservation hotspot. For decades, federal, state, NGO, and corporate entities have been acquiring land and actively or passively restoring these forests, but results have been mixed and seldom monitored. This study characterized and quantified faunal communities of restored thornforest habitats in south Texas and examined the relationships between restored faunal communities and key site characteristics and environmental factors. We surveyed and analyzed mammal, bird, Lepidoptera, and herptile communities within 12 restored sites in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of southernmost Texas, USA. The site and environmental factors that influenced animal community composition, richness, diversity, and abundance varied widely among taxa. Time since restoration began and method of restoration influenced many community metrics, whereas patch size and extent of isolation influenced few. Several aspects of restored plant communities were influential, especially ground layer diversity, and high invasive plant cover negatively impacted many animal community metrics. If actively restoring a site, efforts to control invasive plants, foster native plant diversity, and provide a nearby water source are likely the most effective ways to promote faunal recolonization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)
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20 pages, 4862 KiB  
Review
Charting the Research Status for Bamboo Resources and Bamboo as a Sustainable Plastic Alternative: A Bibliometric Review
by Hanjiao Zhang, Xu Zhang, Yulong Ding, Feiyi Huang, Zhuoyu Cai and Shuyan Lin
Forests 2024, 15(10), 1812; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101812 - 16 Oct 2024
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3380
Abstract
With the increasing pollution caused by plastic products, people’s awareness of environmental protection has gradually increased. Based on the advantages of China’s bamboo resources and bamboo industry, the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan launched the ‘Utilizing bamboo as a sustainable alternative to [...] Read more.
With the increasing pollution caused by plastic products, people’s awareness of environmental protection has gradually increased. Based on the advantages of China’s bamboo resources and bamboo industry, the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan launched the ‘Utilizing bamboo as a sustainable alternative to plastic’ initiative in November 2022 to accelerate the implementation of the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This initiative provides a nature-based solution for global sustainable development, which will have a profound impact on promoting global green development, industrial science and technology, social services, cultural exchanges, and other fields. It has a huge market capacity and application potential. This study aims to understand the research status, hotspots, development trends, and prospects of this initiative. WoS and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) were searched for the relevant literature on ‘utilizing bamboo as a sustainable alternative to plastic bamboo as plastic’ and ‘bamboo resources’ from the establishment of the database to 2024. Bibliometric methods and VOSviewer were used to analyze 1855 literatures with the above two keywords published in the Web of Science core set database from 2000 to 2024. A visual analysis was performed on the number of publications, national research institutions, researchers, number of citations, and research topics of the literature. For example, China, the United States, and India ranked in the top three in terms of the number of articles published, with 1103, 267, and 167, respectively. China had the highest number of citations, reaching 26,607. At the same time, the literature with ‘bamboo’ as the keyword in CNKI was analyzed to understand the species of bamboo currently studied. A literature investigation was carried out around the resource cultivation of the bamboo industry in our country, and it was found that the research on ‘use bamboo as plastic’ and ‘bamboo resources’ had been valued by scholars at home and abroad, and had formed a relatively stable research group. Using scientific and technological innovation to improve the product quality of ‘bamboo instead of plastic’, expanding its application scope and market demand, and realizeing the sustainable industry development of ‘bamboo instead of plastic’ is the current research hotspot and the future development direction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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37 pages, 2536 KiB  
Review
Multidimensional Exploration of Wood Extractives: A Review of Compositional Analysis, Decay Resistance, Light Stability, and Staining Applications
by Chenggong Gao, Xinjie Cui and Junji Matsumura
Forests 2024, 15(10), 1782; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101782 - 10 Oct 2024
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4009
Abstract
Extractives, which naturally evolve as fundamental defense mechanisms in wood against environmental stresses, hold an essential place in the field of wood conservation science. Despite their low content in woody substrates, extractives are chemically complex and can be extracted accurately by solvents with [...] Read more.
Extractives, which naturally evolve as fundamental defense mechanisms in wood against environmental stresses, hold an essential place in the field of wood conservation science. Despite their low content in woody substrates, extractives are chemically complex and can be extracted accurately by solvents with different polarities, covering key components such as aliphatic, terpenoid, and phenolic compounds. The application of solvent extraction allows for the effective recovery of these extracts from forestry waste, thereby creating new opportunities for their reuse in wood modification and enhancing the economic value and potential applications of forestry waste. In the wood industry, extractives not only act as efficient preservatives and photo-stabilizers, significantly improving the decay resistance and photodegradation resistance of wood, but also serve as ideal dyes for fast-growing wood due to their abundant natural colors, which lend the product a distinct aesthetic appeal. The aim of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review of the origin and distribution characteristics of wood extractives and to examine the impact of solvent selection on extraction efficiency. At the same time, the mechanism of extractives in enhancing wood decay resistance and slowing down photodegradation is deeply analyzed. In addition, specific examples are presented to illustrate their wide utilization in the wood industry. This is intended to provide references for research and practice in related fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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15 pages, 7775 KiB  
Article
Forest Restoration Thinning Has Minimal Impacts on Surface Soil Carbon in a Second-Growth Temperate Rainforest
by Steven A. Quick, Dylan G. Fischer and Michael J. Case
Forests 2024, 15(10), 1758; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15101758 - 6 Oct 2024
Viewed by 2186
Abstract
Forest restoration thinning may accelerate the development of structural complexity toward old-growth conditions faster than a natural forest, yet associated changes in forest carbon (C) are poorly understood. Old-growth forests are characterized by high levels of sequestered C in aboveground biomass and soil [...] Read more.
Forest restoration thinning may accelerate the development of structural complexity toward old-growth conditions faster than a natural forest, yet associated changes in forest carbon (C) are poorly understood. Old-growth forests are characterized by high levels of sequestered C in aboveground biomass and soil C pools, yet active management has well-recognized negative impacts on stored C. Effects of forest restoration thinning on forest C can be determined using longitudinal measurements and modeling based on stand conditions and tree growth. At Ellsworth Creek Preserve in Southwest Washington, forest restoration efforts in a second-growth temperate rainforest have been monitored using permanent plots since 2007. Here, we compare repeat measurements from 2020, modeled forest C, and measurements of O-horizon C pools from 2022 to determine C impacts of silvicultural treatments for old-growth restoration. We found good general agreement between empirical measurements and models of forest C using the Forest Vegetation Simulator (FVS). However, treatment alone was not a strong indicator for C conditions; rather, forest age and age–treatment interactions better predicted soil C responses to restoration treatments. These data may indicate that “light” forest restoration thinning can accelerate old-growth development with minimal effects on soil carbon—a win-win conservation strategy for old-growth forests and the climate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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11 pages, 988 KiB  
Article
Total Polyphenol Content and Antioxidant Activity of Leaves and Fine Roots as Indicators of Drought Resistance in the Native Quercus robur and Alien Quercus rubra
by Tsvetana Masante, Sofia Cafà and Antonino Di Iorio
Forests 2024, 15(9), 1647; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15091647 - 18 Sep 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1810
Abstract
Research Highlights: Environmental abiotic stressors generate secondary stresses in plants, such as osmotic and oxidative stresses, which negatively influence their normal growth, development, and metabolism. Research about other non-enzymatic components with antioxidant capacity has recently focused on polyphenols. However, their role as indicators [...] Read more.
Research Highlights: Environmental abiotic stressors generate secondary stresses in plants, such as osmotic and oxidative stresses, which negatively influence their normal growth, development, and metabolism. Research about other non-enzymatic components with antioxidant capacity has recently focused on polyphenols. However, their role as indicators of drought and shade tolerance in woody species leaves and roots has been poorly explored or was limited to leaves only. Background and Objectives: Under a scenario of increasing drought, understanding the seedling responses in terms of total polyphenols and their antioxidant activity, in particular at the fine root system level, may help to elucidate the native–alien species interaction. Materials and Methods: At the beginning of July, 5-month-old native Quercus robur and alien Quercus rubra seedlings were transferred indoors to the growth chamber and subjected to progressive soil drying for 21 days. Results: The decrease in soil water content was more pronounced for Q. robur (9%) than for Q. rubra (34% of field capacity). Leaf water potential significantly decreased over time in Q. robur but did not differ from the control in Q. rubra. The total polyphenol concentration in Q. robur was markedly lower in the leaves and significantly higher in the fine roots than in Q. rubra. For the leaves, both species showed markedly higher values if well-watered, and the values significantly decreased in response to drought only in Q. rubra. In contrast, the fine root values for both species were markedly higher if droughted and decreased significantly in time only in Q. robur. Differently from the polyphenol concentration, the antioxidant capacity of Q. rubra was always higher in both the leaves and fine roots. Conclusions: The higher antioxidant activity of the alien species Q. rubra revealed by this work, combined with its isohydric behaviour, could further shed some light on our understanding of its competitive performance at the seedling stage against the native Q. robur. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seedling Management in Temperate Forest Ecosystems)
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23 pages, 2911 KiB  
Review
Reduction and Reuse of Forestry and Agricultural Bio-Waste through Innovative Green Utilization Approaches: A Review
by Jianhui Guo, Yi Zhang, Jianjun Fang, Ziwei Ma, Cheng Li, Mengyao Yan, Naxin Qiao, Yang Liu and Mingming Bian
Forests 2024, 15(8), 1372; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081372 - 6 Aug 2024
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5172
Abstract
Biomass waste, which is biodegradable and vastly underutilized, is generated in huge quantities worldwide. Forestry and agricultural biomass wastes are notable for their wide availability, high yield, biodegradability, and recyclability. The accumulation of these wastes not only occupies valuable land but causes serious [...] Read more.
Biomass waste, which is biodegradable and vastly underutilized, is generated in huge quantities worldwide. Forestry and agricultural biomass wastes are notable for their wide availability, high yield, biodegradability, and recyclability. The accumulation of these wastes not only occupies valuable land but causes serious environmental pollution, which can ultimately harm human health. Therefore, leveraging scientific technology to convert forestry and agricultural bio-waste into bioenergy and other valuable products is crucial. In this paper, common forestry and agricultural bio-waste such as straw, rice husks, livestock manure, tree branches, sawdust, and bioenergy (bioethanol, biogas, biodiesel, biohydrogen) were selected as keywords, with the theme of green and efficient utilization. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the sources of biomass waste, existing recycling technologies, and the potential of forestry and agricultural bio-waste as material additives and for conversion to biomass energy and other derivatives, along with future recycling prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Sustainable Development and High-Value Utilization of Forestry Resources—2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 3594 KiB  
Article
Different Responses of Terrestrial Carbon Fluxes to Environmental Changes in Cold Temperate Forest Ecosystems
by Mihang Jiang, Xinjie Liu and Liangyun Liu
Forests 2024, 15(8), 1340; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15081340 - 1 Aug 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2082
Abstract
As the largest carbon reservoir within terrestrial ecosystems, forest ecosystems play a major role as carbon sinks in the global carbon cycle. There are still some uncertainties regarding the responses of different carbon fluxes to environmental changes in cold temperate climate forest ecosystems. [...] Read more.
As the largest carbon reservoir within terrestrial ecosystems, forest ecosystems play a major role as carbon sinks in the global carbon cycle. There are still some uncertainties regarding the responses of different carbon fluxes to environmental changes in cold temperate climate forest ecosystems. Here, 14 cold temperate forest flux sites for at least ten years were investigated, including carbon fluxes and environmental variables such as temperature, precipitation, shortwave radiation, and vapor pressure deficit. By calculating the Spearman correlation coefficient, there was a congruence between photosynthetic productivity (i.e., gross primary productivity, GPP) and carbon sequestration (i.e., net ecosystem productivity, NEP) at thirteen forest sites, and at one forest site, GPP and NEP were decoupled. Annual GPP and NEP displayed a consistent trend when temperature and precipitation had significantly opposite trends and when temperature had a significantly positive correlation with VPD. But when VPD was significantly negatively correlated with both temperature and SW in spring and when temperature was negatively correlated with both SW and VPD in summer, a decoupling of GPP and NEP occurred. The impacts of various environmental factors on the annual carbon fluxes were calculated for each year and season using the path analysis method. At forest sites with consistent trends in GPP and NEP, annual, spring, and summer temperatures had significant positive correlations with GPP and ecosystem respiration (RE). While at the decoupled forest site, environmental factors had a stronger effect on RE, which then contributed to the observed decoupling of GPP and NEP. Finally, the Partial Least Squares method was used to analyze the relative contribution of each environmental factor to annual carbon fluxes. The results revealed that temperature and summer precipitation were the key environmental factors affecting forest ecosystems. This study provides important insights into the different responses of carbon fluxes in forest ecosystems undergoing environmental changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Forest Carbon Sequestration and Climate Change Mitigation)
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22 pages, 23895 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Spatiotemporal Evolution and Driving Forces of Vegetation from 2001 to 2020: A Case Study of Shandong Province, China
by Dejin Dong, Ziliang Zhao, Hongdi Gao, Yufeng Zhou, Daohong Gong, Huaqiang Du and Yuichiro Fujioka
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1245; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071245 - 17 Jul 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2368
Abstract
As global climate change intensifies and human activities escalate, changes in vegetation cover, an important ecological indicator, hold significant implications for ecosystem protection and management. Shandong Province, a critical agricultural and economic zone in China, experiences vegetation changes that crucially affect regional climate [...] Read more.
As global climate change intensifies and human activities escalate, changes in vegetation cover, an important ecological indicator, hold significant implications for ecosystem protection and management. Shandong Province, a critical agricultural and economic zone in China, experiences vegetation changes that crucially affect regional climate regulation and biodiversity conservation. This study employed normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) data, combined with climatic, topographic, and anthropogenic activity data, utilizing trend analysis methods, partial correlation analysis, and Geodetector to comprehensively analyze the spatiotemporal variations and primary driving factors of vegetation cover in Shandong Province from 2001 to 2020. The findings indicate an overall upward trend in vegetation cover, particularly in areas with concentrated human activities. Climatic factors, such as precipitation and temperature, exhibit a positive correlation with vegetation growth, while land use changes emerge as one of the key drivers influencing vegetation dynamics. Additionally, topography also impacts the spatial distribution of vegetation to a certain extent. This research provides a scientific basis for ecological protection and land management in Shandong Province and similar regions, supporting the formulation of effective vegetation restoration and ecological conservation strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrologic and Carbon Balance Responses of Forests Resulting from Climate Change)
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22 pages, 913 KiB  
Review
A Comparative Literature Review of Machine Learning and Image Processing Techniques Used for Scaling and Grading of Wood Logs
by Yohann Jacob Sandvik, Cecilia Marie Futsæther, Kristian Hovde Liland and Oliver Tomic
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1243; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071243 - 17 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2620
Abstract
This literature review assesses the efficacy of image-processing techniques and machine-learning models in computer vision for wood log grading and scaling. Four searches were conducted in four scientific databases, yielding a total of 1288 results, which were narrowed down to 33 relevant studies. [...] Read more.
This literature review assesses the efficacy of image-processing techniques and machine-learning models in computer vision for wood log grading and scaling. Four searches were conducted in four scientific databases, yielding a total of 1288 results, which were narrowed down to 33 relevant studies. The studies were categorized according to their goals, including log end grading, log side grading, individual log scaling, log pile scaling, and log segmentation. The studies were compared based on the input used, choice of model, model performance, and level of autonomy. This review found a preference for images over point cloud representations for logs and an increase in camera use over laser scanners. It identified three primary model types: classical image-processing algorithms, deep learning models, and other machine learning models. However, comparing performance across studies proved challenging due to varying goals and metrics. Deep learning models showed better performance in the log pile scaling and log segmentation goal categories. Cameras were found to have become more popular over time compared to laser scanners, possibly due to stereovision cameras taking over for laser scanners for sampling point cloud datasets. Classical image-processing algorithms were consistently used, deep learning models gained prominence in 2018, and other machine learning models were used in studies published between 2010 and 2018. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Advanced Technologies for Improved Precision in Forest Operations)
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21 pages, 3767 KiB  
Article
Mapping Planted Forests in the Korean Peninsula Using Artificial Intelligence
by Ankita Mitra, Cesar Ivan Alvarez, Akane O. Abbasi, Nancy L. Harris, Guofan Shao, Bryan C. Pijanowski, Mohammad Reza Jahanshahi, Javier G. P. Gamarra, Hyun-Seok Kim, Tae-Kyung Kim, Daun Ryu and Jingjing Liang
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1216; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071216 - 12 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 5169
Abstract
Forests are essential for maintaining the ecological balance of the planet and providing critical ecosystem services. Amidst an increasing rate of global forest loss due to various natural and anthropogenic factors, many countries are committed to battling forest loss by planting new forests. [...] Read more.
Forests are essential for maintaining the ecological balance of the planet and providing critical ecosystem services. Amidst an increasing rate of global forest loss due to various natural and anthropogenic factors, many countries are committed to battling forest loss by planting new forests. Despite the reported national statistics on the land area in plantations, accurately delineating boundaries of planted forests with remotely sensed data remains a great challenge. In this study, we explored several deep learning approaches based on Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) for mapping the extent of planted forests in the Korean Peninsula. Our methodology involved data preprocessing, the application of data augmentation techniques, and rigorous model training, with performance assessed using various evaluation metrics. To ensure robust performance and accuracy, we validated the model’s predictions across the Korean Peninsula. Our analysis showed that the integration of the Near Infrared band from 10 m Sentinel-2 remote sensing images with the UNet deep learning model, incorporated with unfrozen ResNet-34 backbone architecture, produced the best model performance. With a recall of 64% and precision of 76.8%, the UNet model surpassed the other pixel-based deep learning models, including DeepLab and Pyramid Sense Parsing, in terms of classification accuracy. When compared to the ensemble-based Random Forest (RF) machine learning model, the RF approach demonstrates a significantly lower recall rate of 55.2% and greater precision of 92%. These findings highlight the unique strength of deep learning and machine learning approaches for mapping planted forests in diverse geographical regions on Earth. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Species Distribution, Diversity and Growth under Climate Change)
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18 pages, 3419 KiB  
Article
Geoforms and Biogeography Defining Mangrove Primary Productivity: A Meta-Analysis for the American Pacific
by Carolina Velázquez-Pérez, Emilio I. Romero-Berny, Clara Luz Miceli-Méndez, Patricia Moreno-Casasola and Sergio López
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1215; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071215 - 12 Jul 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2888
Abstract
We present a meta-analysis of mangrove litterfall across 58 sites in the American Pacific, exploring its variability among geoforms, ecoregions, and provinces. This study contributes to filling the information gap on litter-based primary productivity in American mangroves at the ecoregional level and directly [...] Read more.
We present a meta-analysis of mangrove litterfall across 58 sites in the American Pacific, exploring its variability among geoforms, ecoregions, and provinces. This study contributes to filling the information gap on litter-based primary productivity in American mangroves at the ecoregional level and directly examines the effects of geomorphological and biogeographic factors on mangrove productivity. The objective was to evaluate how geoform, ecoregion, and province factors, along with eight environmental variables, influence litterfall-based primary productivity. Each site was categorized according to its landform through the analysis of satellite images obtained from various sensors on the Google Earth Pro v. 7.3.6 platform. Additionally, it was categorized according to its ecoregion and province by analyzing the occurrence of the sites on biogeographic unit coverage in ArcMap 10.4.1. We then analyzed the effect of each factor and the efficiency of categorization using multivariate methods. Our results showed significant differences in litterfall among the geoforms, with estuaries exhibiting higher litterfall production (11.90 Mg ha−1 year−1) compared to lagoons (7.49 ± 4.13 Mg ha−1 year−1). Differences were also observed among provinces, with the highest average in the Tropical Eastern Pacific (11.19 ± 3.63 Mg ha−1 year−1) and the lowest in the Warm Temperate Northeast Pacific (7.34 ± 4.28 Mg ha−1 year−1). Allocation success analyses indicated that sites classified by dominant species and province were more predictable (>60.34%) for litterfall production. Additionally, the maximum temperature and the precipitation of the wettest month and the driest month explained 34.13% of the variability in mangrove litter-based primary productivity. We conclude that mangrove litterfall production is influenced by coastal geomorphic characteristics and biogeography, which are, in turn, affected by latitude-induced climate variation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Mangrove Ecosystems on Coastal Ecology and Climate Change)
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25 pages, 2065 KiB  
Review
Challenges and Prospects of Applying Nanocellulose for the Conservation of Wooden Cultural Heritage—A Review
by Paulina Kryg, Bartłomiej Mazela, Waldemar Perdoch and Magdalena Broda
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1174; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071174 - 5 Jul 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2406
Abstract
Nanocellulose is a nanostructured form of cellulose, which retains valuable properties of cellulose such as renewability, biodegradability, biocompatibility, nontoxicity, and sustainability and, due to its nano-sizes, acquires several useful features, such as low density, high aspect ratio and stiffness, a high specific surface [...] Read more.
Nanocellulose is a nanostructured form of cellulose, which retains valuable properties of cellulose such as renewability, biodegradability, biocompatibility, nontoxicity, and sustainability and, due to its nano-sizes, acquires several useful features, such as low density, high aspect ratio and stiffness, a high specific surface area, easy processing and functionalisation, and good thermal stability. All these make it a highly versatile green nanomaterial for multiple applications, including the conservation of cultural heritage. This review provides the basic characteristics of all nanocellulose forms and their properties and presents the results of recent research on nanocellulose formulations applied for conserving historical artefacts made of wood and paper, discussing their effectiveness, advantages, and disadvantages. Pure nanocellulose proves particularly useful for conserving historical paper since it can form a durable, stable coating that consolidates the surface of a degraded object. However, it is not as effective for wood consolidation treatment due to its poor penetration into the wood structure. The research shows that this disadvantage can be overcome by various chemical modifications of the nanocellulose surface; owing to its specific chemistry, nanocellulose can be easily functionalised and, thus, enriched with the properties required for an effective wood consolidant. Moreover, combining nanocellulose with other agents can also improve its properties, adding new functionalities to the developed supramolecular systems that would address multiple needs of degraded artefacts. Since the broad use of nanocellulose in conservation practice depends on its properties, price, and availability, the development of new, effective, green, and industrial-scale production methods ensuring the manufacture of nanocellulose particles with standardised properties is necessary. Nanocellulose is an interesting and very promising solution for the conservation of cultural heritage artefacts made of paper and wood; however, further thorough interdisciplinary research is still necessary to devise new green methods of its production as well as develop new effective and sustainable nanocellulose-based conservation agents, which would replace synthetic, non-sustainable consolidants and enable proper conservation of historical objects of our cultural heritage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood as Cultural Heritage Material: 2nd Edition)
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21 pages, 4014 KiB  
Article
Soil Microbial Communities Responses to Multiple Generations’ Successive Planting of Eucalyptus Trees
by Chenyang Jiang, Yaqin He, Yuhong Cui, Yahui Lan, Han Zhang and Shaoming Ye
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1166; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071166 - 4 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1708
Abstract
The impacts of the successive planting of Eucalyptus on soil microbial communities and their underlying mechanisms remain unknown, limiting our understanding of its long-term effects on soil ecosystems. This study examined the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers, investigating changes in soil [...] Read more.
The impacts of the successive planting of Eucalyptus on soil microbial communities and their underlying mechanisms remain unknown, limiting our understanding of its long-term effects on soil ecosystems. This study examined the 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers, investigating changes in soil bacterial and fungal communities after multiple plantings of Eucalyptus grandis × urophylla using high-throughput sequencing. Furthermore, we used the structural equation model (SEM) to analyze the relationships among soil active organic carbon (SAOC), enzyme activity, and microbial diversity. The study showed that the multigeneration successive planting of Eucalyptus significantly increased the soil bulk density and decreased the soil physicochemical properties and soil enzyme activities (p < 0.05). The soil’s dominant microbial compositions were unchanged in the two soil horizons, but the relative abundances of some dominant phyla (e.g., Crenarchaeota, Basidiomycota and Actinobacteriota) were affected by successive planting. The variability in the microbial community structure was influenced primarily by the soil water content (SWC) and organic carbon (p < 0.05). The microbial community diversity in the 20–40 cm horizon was significantly affected by multigeneration succession (p < 0.05). SWC was the core factor driving microbial community diversity. SEM results showed that multigeneration successive planting obviously limits SAOC fractions and enzyme activities, negatively affecting soil microbial diversity. Our study highlights the impact of the multigeneration successive planting of Eucalyptus on soil microbial community structure and suggests adjustments in forestry practices to mitigate soil degradation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)
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20 pages, 2768 KiB  
Article
Climate as a Driver of Aboveground Biomass Density Variation: A Study of Ten Pine Species in Mexico
by Dioseline Girón-Gutiérrez, Jorge Méndez-González, Tamara G. Osorno-Sánchez, Julián Cerano-Paredes, José C. Soto-Correa and Víctor H. Cambrón-Sandoval
Forests 2024, 15(7), 1160; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15071160 - 3 Jul 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1834
Abstract
The native pine species of Mexico, constituting 55% of all pine species, play a crucial economic role for local populations. Climatic factors affected by climate change, such as temperature and precipitation, influence tree physiology and distribution. Our study focused on the aboveground biomass [...] Read more.
The native pine species of Mexico, constituting 55% of all pine species, play a crucial economic role for local populations. Climatic factors affected by climate change, such as temperature and precipitation, influence tree physiology and distribution. Our study focused on the aboveground biomass density (AGBd) distribution of ten Mexican pine species and its correlation with bioclimatic variables. Dendrometric data were obtained from National Forest and Soil Inventory (INFyS) (period: 2009 and 2014) while data on bioclimatic variables were obtained from WorldClim2. AGBd distribution maps were generated for the ten species. Spearman and Bayesian correlations were determined between AGBd and the 19 bioclimatic variables. Six species showed a significant correlation (p < 0.05) between AGBd and bioclimatic variables. The results did not show geographical regionalization for AGBd and highlighted the complexity of responses in each species. Temperature variables showed the highest number of correlations with AGBd (76%), which varied between species. Regarding precipitation, correlations were mostly positive. In general, our findings suggest an important link between climate and AGBd, from which relevant strategies can be developed for sustainable forest management of the country’s forests in relation to expected climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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21 pages, 5988 KiB  
Article
Use of a Consumer-Grade UAV Laser Scanner to Identify Trees and Estimate Key Tree Attributes across a Point Density Range
by Michael S. Watt, Sadeepa Jayathunga, Robin J. L. Hartley, Grant D. Pearse, Peter D. Massam, David Cajes, Benjamin S. C. Steer and Honey Jane C. Estarija
Forests 2024, 15(6), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15060899 - 22 May 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2592
Abstract
The management of plantation forests using precision forestry requires advanced inventory methods. Unmanned aerial vehicle laser scanning (ULS) offers a cost-effective approach to accurately estimate forest structural attributes at both plot and individual tree levels. We examined the utility of ULS data collected [...] Read more.
The management of plantation forests using precision forestry requires advanced inventory methods. Unmanned aerial vehicle laser scanning (ULS) offers a cost-effective approach to accurately estimate forest structural attributes at both plot and individual tree levels. We examined the utility of ULS data collected from a radiata pine stand for tree detection and prediction of diameter at breast height (DBH) and stem volume, using data thinned to 13-point densities (ranging from 10–12,200 points/m2). These datasets were created using a DTM with the highest pulse density and DTMs that used the native decimated point clouds. Models of DBH were constructed using partial least squares (PLS) and random forest (RF) from seven classes of metrics that characterized the horizontal and vertical structure of the canopy. Individual tree segmentation was consistently accurate across the 13-point densities and was insensitive to DTM type (F1 scores > 0.96). Predictions of DBH using PLS models were consistently more accurate than RF models and accuracy was insensitive to the DTM type. Using data from the native DTMs, DBH estimation using PLS had the lowest RMSE of 1.624 cm (R2 of 0.756) at a point density of 12,200 points/m2. Stem volume predictions made using PLS predictions of DBH and height from the ULS had the lowest RMSE of 0.0418 m3 (R2 of 0.792) at 12,200 points/m2. The RMSE values for DBH and volume remained relatively stable from 12,200 to between 750 and 400 points/m2, with reductions in accuracy occurring as point density declined below this threshold. Overall, these findings have significant implications, particularly for the precise estimation of DBH and stem volume at the individual tree level. They demonstrate the potential of cost-effective ULS sensors for rapid and frequent plantation forest assessment, thereby enhancing the application of light detection and ranging (LiDAR) technology in plantation forest management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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31 pages, 3007 KiB  
Review
Estimating Economic and Livelihood Values of the World’s Largest Mangrove Forest (Sundarbans): A Meta-Analysis
by Akbar Hossain Kanan, Mauro Masiero and Francesco Pirotti
Forests 2024, 15(5), 837; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050837 - 10 May 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3665
Abstract
We explored the state of the art economic and livelihood valuation of ecosystem services (ES) in the Sundarbans mangroves, including a comparative analysis between the Bangladesh and Indian parts of the region. We identified 145 values from 26 studies to estimate the Sundarbans’ [...] Read more.
We explored the state of the art economic and livelihood valuation of ecosystem services (ES) in the Sundarbans mangroves, including a comparative analysis between the Bangladesh and Indian parts of the region. We identified 145 values from 26 studies to estimate the Sundarbans’ economic and livelihood values. The number of ES valuation studies of the Sundarbans is scant, and it has gradually increased over time, focusing mainly on the estimation of provisioning ES (66.2%), followed by regulating and maintenance (25.5%), and cultural (8.3%) ES. However, recently, attention has been paid to estimation, regulating and maintenance, and cultural ES. The number of studies on ES was higher for the Bangladesh (73%) part of the Sundarbans than the Indian (27%) one. The estimated economic values of the Sundarbans’ provisioning, regulating and maintenance, and cultural ES were US $ 713.30 ha−1 yr−1, US $ 2584.46 ha−1 yr−1, and US $ 151.88 ha−1 yr−1, respectively. Except for cultural ES, the identified values for the other two ES categories were about 1.5 to 2.5 times higher for the Bangladesh Sundarbans compared to the Indian ones. The results of the meta-regression model showed that the estimated economic and livelihood values of ES are affected by the associated variables (e.g., type of ES, valuation methods, study area, population, and GDP). Our study also identified some remarkable gaps and limitations in the economic and livelihood valuation of the ES of the Sundarbans, highlighting the need for further research to find out the values of all ES to help with policy decision-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic Valuation of Forest Resources)
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16 pages, 3633 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Height Growth Equations and Site Index-Based Biomass Models for Young Native Species Afforestations in Spain
by Rafael Calama, Guillermo Madrigal, Miren del Río, Eduardo López-Senespleda, Marta Pardos, Ricardo Ruiz-Peinado and María Menéndez-Miguélez
Forests 2024, 15(5), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050827 - 8 May 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1943
Abstract
The expansion of forested areas through afforestation and reforestation is widely recognized as a highly effective natural solution for mitigating climate change. Accurately assessing the potential carbon uptake capacity of newly afforested areas requires modelling tools to estimate biomass stocks, including site index [...] Read more.
The expansion of forested areas through afforestation and reforestation is widely recognized as a highly effective natural solution for mitigating climate change. Accurately assessing the potential carbon uptake capacity of newly afforested areas requires modelling tools to estimate biomass stocks, including site index curves and biomass models. Given the unique conditions in terms of tree size, uniform spacing, and tree allometries observed in young afforestations compared to natural stands, specific tools are necessary. In Spain, over 800,000 ha has been afforested with native forest species since 1992, but specific modelling tools for these plantations are lacking. Using data from 370 stem analyses collected across an extensive network of plots in young afforestations, we developed dynamic height growth and site index models for the main native species (five pines and five oaks) commonly used in afforestation in Spain. We compared various nonlinear models, such as ADA (algebraic difference approach) and GADA (generalized algebraic difference approach) expansions. The developed site index models were then used to predict the total biomass stored in the afforestation. Our results underscore the necessity for specific site index models tailored to afforestations, as well as the potential of the established site index in predicting biomass and carbon fixation capacity in these young forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Growth Modeling in Different Ecological Conditions)
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16 pages, 4343 KiB  
Article
Physical and Mechanical Properties of Fiberboard Made of MDF Residues and Phase Change Materials
by Gustavo E. Rodríguez, Cecilia Bustos Ávila and Alain Cloutier
Forests 2024, 15(5), 802; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050802 - 30 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3924
Abstract
The wood-based panel industry is experiencing an excessive accumulation of solid residues from the production of medium-density fiberboard (MDF) panels and moldings. It is possible to create new MDF products with acceptable physical and mechanical properties by revaluing MDF residues. Additionally, those products’ [...] Read more.
The wood-based panel industry is experiencing an excessive accumulation of solid residues from the production of medium-density fiberboard (MDF) panels and moldings. It is possible to create new MDF products with acceptable physical and mechanical properties by revaluing MDF residues. Additionally, those products’ thermal properties can be improved by incorporating phase change materials (PCMs). This study aims to develop a wood-based fiberboard made of MDF residues, capable of storing thermal energy. Two types of PCMs (liquid and microencapsulated), two PCM ratios (2% and 6%), and two types of adhesives (urea-formaldehyde and phenol-formaldehyde) were used to produce eight different types of panels. The vertical density profile, thickness swelling, water absorption, internal bond (IB), and static bending properties—modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR)—were determined for each panel type. The specific heat of the panels was also determined. The results show the panels’ densities were greater than 700 kg/m3. Thickness swelling in water improved by 23% compared to the reference value of the control panel PCMs after PCM incorporation. The highest IB value was 1.30 MPa, which is almost three times the minimum required by regulation standards. The incorporation of PCMs reduced the panels’ bending properties compared to the properties of the control panels. Even though the values obtained are sufficient to comply with the minimum values set out in ANSI standard A208.2 with an MOE value of 2072.4 MPa and the values obtained are sufficient to comply with the minimum standards with an MOE value of 2072.4 MPa and an MOR value of 16.4 MPa, when microencapsulated PCM is used, the specific heat of the panels is increased by more than 100% over that of the control panels. This study developed fiberboards with adequate physical and mechanical properties and capable of storing thermal energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Materials in the Forest Products Industry)
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23 pages, 4793 KiB  
Article
Temporal Dynamics of Canopy Properties and Carbon and Water Fluxes in a Temperate Evergreen Angiosperm Forest
by Alexandre A. Renchon, Vanessa Haverd, Cathy M. Trudinger, Belinda E. Medlyn, Anne Griebel, Daniel Metzen, Jürgen Knauer, Matthias M. Boer and Elise Pendall
Forests 2024, 15(5), 801; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050801 - 30 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2048
Abstract
The forest–atmosphere exchange of carbon and water is regulated by meteorological conditions as well as canopy properties such as leaf area index (LAI, m2 m−2), photosynthetic capacity (PC μmol m−2 s−1), or surface conductance in optimal conditions [...] Read more.
The forest–atmosphere exchange of carbon and water is regulated by meteorological conditions as well as canopy properties such as leaf area index (LAI, m2 m−2), photosynthetic capacity (PC μmol m−2 s−1), or surface conductance in optimal conditions (Gs,opt, mmol m−2 s−1), which can vary seasonally and inter-annually. This variability is well understood for deciduous species but is poorly characterized in evergreen forests. Here, we quantify the seasonal dynamics of a temperate evergreen eucalypt forest with estimates of LAI, litterfall, carbon and water fluxes, and meteorological conditions from measurements and model simulations. We merged MODIS Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) values with site-based LAI measurements to establish a 17-year sequence of monthly LAI. We ran the Community Atmosphere Biosphere Land Exchange model (CABLE-POP (version r5046)) with constant and varying LAI for our site to quantify the influence of seasonal canopy dynamics on carbon and water fluxes. We observed that the peak of LAI occurred in late summer–early autumn, with a higher and earlier peak occurring in years when summer rainfall was greater. Seasonality in litterfall and allocation of net primary productivity (FNPP) to leaf growth (af, 0–1) drove this pattern, suggesting a complete renewal of the canopy before the timing of peak LAI. Litterfall peaked in spring, followed by a high af in summer, at the end of which LAI peaked, and PC and Gs,opt reached their maximum values in autumn, resulting from a combination of high LAI and efficient mature leaves. These canopy dynamics helped explain observations of maximum gross ecosystem production (FGEP) in spring and autumn and net ecosystem carbon loss in summer at our site. Inter-annual variability in LAI was positively correlated with Net Ecosystem Production (FNEP). It would be valuable to apply a similar approach to other temperate evergreen forests to identify broad patterns of seasonality in leaf growth and turnover. Because incorporating dynamic LAI was insufficient to fully capture the dynamics of FGEP, observations of seasonal variation in photosynthetic capacity, such as from solar-induced fluorescence, should be incorporated in land surface models to improve ecosystem flux estimates in evergreen forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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20 pages, 3216 KiB  
Article
Riparian Forests as Nature-Based Solutions within the Mediterranean Context: A Biophysical and Economic Assessment for the Koiliaris River Watershed (Crete, Greece)
by Mauro Masiero, Giorgia Bottaro, Caterina Righetti, Nikolaos P. Nikolaidis, Maria A. Lilli and Davide Pettenella
Forests 2024, 15(5), 760; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050760 - 26 Apr 2024
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2512
Abstract
The Mediterranean Basin is severely impacted by anthropogenic changes affecting both natural ecosystems and human livelihoods. The region is highly vulnerable to natural hazards, with floods being considered the most important, due both to their frequency and impacts. Koiliaris watershed (northwest of Crete [...] Read more.
The Mediterranean Basin is severely impacted by anthropogenic changes affecting both natural ecosystems and human livelihoods. The region is highly vulnerable to natural hazards, with floods being considered the most important, due both to their frequency and impacts. Koiliaris watershed (northwest of Crete Island, Greece) represents a relevant case study as past land-use changes via deforestation and intense cultivation practices induce soil organic matter losses, making soils susceptible to water erosion and desertification. The restoration of native riparian forests has been identified as the most effective nature-based solution (NBS) for the area. Through modeling, our study assessed the effectiveness of this NBS in addressing flood risk and erosion while providing additional ecosystem services (carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation). A cost–benefit analysis has been then implemented to also investigate the sustainability of the investment from an economic point of view. Our results show the NBS would be successful in ensuring a better flow of targeted ecosystem services compared to the business-as-usual conditions. The associated investment would result in economic sustainability and associated costs would be paid back in five years. Though site-specific, our study provides lessons learned for dealing with future land-restoration challenges in the Mediterranean to cope with climate change-related challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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21 pages, 5117 KiB  
Article
Monitoring Forest Dynamics and Conducting Restoration Assessment Using Multi-Source Earth Observation Data in Northern Andes, Colombia
by Carlos Pedraza, Nicola Clerici, Marcelo Villa, Milton Romero, Adriana Sarmiento Dueñas, Dallan Beltrán Rojas, Paola Quintero, Mauricio Martínez and Josef Kellndorfer
Forests 2024, 15(5), 754; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050754 - 25 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3383
Abstract
Examining the efficacy of current assessment methodologies for forest conservation and restoration initiatives to align with global and national agendas to combat deforestation and facilitate restoration efforts is necessary to identify efficient and robust approaches. The objective of this study is to understand [...] Read more.
Examining the efficacy of current assessment methodologies for forest conservation and restoration initiatives to align with global and national agendas to combat deforestation and facilitate restoration efforts is necessary to identify efficient and robust approaches. The objective of this study is to understand forest dynamics (1996–2021) and assess restoration implementations at the Urra’s supplying basin hydroelectric reservoir in Colombia. The processing approach integrates optical and radar Earth Observation (EO) data from Sentinel-2 and Landsat for forest mapping and multi-temporal forest change assessment (1996–2021), and a Sentinel-1 backscatter time-series analysis is conducted to assess the state of forest restoration implementations. The processing chain was scaled in a cloud-based environment using the Nebari and SEPPO software and the Python language. The results demonstrate an overall substantial decrease in forested areas in the 1996–2000 period (37,763 ha). An accuracy assessment of multi-temporal forest change maps showed a high precision in detecting deforestation events, while improvements are necessary for accurately representing non-forested areas. The forest restoration assessment suggests that the majority of the 270 evaluated plots are in the intermediate growth state (82.96%) compared to the reference data. This study underscores the need for robust and continuous monitoring systems that integrate ground truth data with EO techniques for enhanced accuracy and effectiveness in forest restoration and conservation endeavors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Remote Sensing for Forestry: Theory, Methods, Applications, and Validation)
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16 pages, 2230 KiB  
Article
Drought Impact on Eco-Physiological Responses and Growth Performance of Healthy and Declining Pinus sylvestris L. Trees Growing in a Dry Area of Southern Poland
by Barbara Benisiewicz, Sławomira Pawełczyk, Francesco Niccoli, Jerzy Piotr Kabala and Giovanna Battipaglia
Forests 2024, 15(5), 741; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050741 - 24 Apr 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2552
Abstract
In recent years, several drought events hit Poland, affecting its forests. In Opole, Poland, tons of Pinus sylvestris L. deadwood is removed every year due to drought. Understanding the physiological mechanisms underlying tree vulnerability to drought, and tree responses, is important to develop [...] Read more.
In recent years, several drought events hit Poland, affecting its forests. In Opole, Poland, tons of Pinus sylvestris L. deadwood is removed every year due to drought. Understanding the physiological mechanisms underlying tree vulnerability to drought, and tree responses, is important to develop forest management strategies to face the ongoing climate change. This research provides comprehensive local-scale analyses of the sensitivity of healthy and declining trees to drought. We used dendrochronology and stable isotope analysis to compare five healthy and five declining trees. The analysis focused particularly on comparisons of basal area increment (BAI), δ13C, and intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE), as well as tree resistance, resilience, and recovery in response to drought events and sensitivity to selected meteorological parameters. We observed a significant reduction in BAI values in declining trees after 2000. Fifteen years later, the reduction was also visible in the iWUE values of these trees. Despite similar δ13C chronology patterns, declining trees showed higher δ13C correlations with meteorological parameters. We have shown that dendrochronology enables early detection of poor forest health conditions. Differences in iWUE chronologies occurring in recent years suggest that trees of both groups have chosen different adaptive strategies to cope with drought stress. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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18 pages, 6380 KiB  
Article
Wood Basic Density in Large Trees: Impacts on Biomass Estimates in the Southwestern Brazilian Amazon
by Flora Magdaline Benitez Romero, Thais de Nazaré Oliveira Novais, Laércio Antônio Gonçalves Jacovine, Eronildo Braga Bezerra, Rosana Barbosa de Castro Lopes, Juliana Sousa de Holanda, Edi Flores Reyna and Philip Martin Fearnside
Forests 2024, 15(5), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050734 - 23 Apr 2024
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3376
Abstract
Wood basic density (WD) plays a crucial role in estimating forest biomass; moreover, improving wood-density estimates is needed to reduce uncertainties in the estimates of tropical forest biomass and carbon stocks. Understanding variations in this density along the tree trunk and its impact [...] Read more.
Wood basic density (WD) plays a crucial role in estimating forest biomass; moreover, improving wood-density estimates is needed to reduce uncertainties in the estimates of tropical forest biomass and carbon stocks. Understanding variations in this density along the tree trunk and its impact on biomass estimates is underexplored in the literature. In this study, the vertical variability of WD was assessed along the stems of large trees that had a diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥ 50 cm from a dense ombrophilous forest on terra firme (unflooded uplands) in Acre, Brazil. A total of 224 trees were sampled, including 20 species, classified by wood type. The average WD along the stem was determined by the ratio of oven-dry mass to saturated volume. Five models were tested, including linear and nonlinear ones, to fit equations for WD, selecting the best model. The variation among species was notable, ranging from 0.288 g cm−3 (Ceiba pentandra, L., Gaertn) to 0.825 g cm−3 (Handroanthus serratifolius, Vahl., S. Grose), with an average of 0.560 g cm−3 (±0.164, standard deviation). Significant variation was observed among individuals, such as in Schizolobium parahyba var. amazonicum (H. ex D.), which ranged from 0.305 to 0.655 g cm−3. WD was classified as low (≤0.40 g cm−3), medium (0.41–0.60 g cm−3), and high (≥0.61 g cm−3). The variability in WD along the stem differs by wood type. In trees with low-density wood, density shows irregular variation but tends to increase along the stem, whereas it decreases in species with medium- and high-density wood. The variation in WD along the stem can lead to underestimations or overestimations, not only in individual trees and species but also in total stocks when estimating forest biomass. Not considering this systematic bias results in significant errors, especially in extrapolations to vast areas, such as the Amazon. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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12 pages, 1963 KiB  
Article
The Nitrogen Cycle of a Cool-Temperate Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forest
by Ruoming Cao, Siyu Chen, Shinpei Yoshitake, Takeo Onishi, Yasuo Iimura and Toshiyuki Ohtsuka
Forests 2024, 15(4), 725; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15040725 - 21 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2058
Abstract
The nitrogen (N) cycle, a major biogeochemical cycle in forest ecosystems, notably affects ecosystem multifunctionality. However, the magnitude and role of organic N and the snow season remain uncertain in this cycle. We assessed the N flux and pool data of a temperate [...] Read more.
The nitrogen (N) cycle, a major biogeochemical cycle in forest ecosystems, notably affects ecosystem multifunctionality. However, the magnitude and role of organic N and the snow season remain uncertain in this cycle. We assessed the N flux and pool data of a temperate deciduous broad-leaved forest to clarify N cycle processes. The results showed that the most important component of the N pool was the soil N pool. The N demand of the site amounted to 139.4 kg N ha−1 year−1 and was divided into tree production (83.8%) and bamboo production (16.2%). We clarified that retranslocation (37.4%), mineralization at a soil depth of 0–5 cm (15.3%), litter leachate (4.6%), throughfall (2.3%), and canopy uptake (0.5%) provided 60.1% of the N demand. In terms of soil at 0–5 cm in depth, the net mineralization rate during the snow season contributed to 30% of the annual mineralization. We concluded that the study site was not N-saturated as a result of a positive N input–output flux budget. More than half of the total N was accounted for by dissolved organic N flowing through several pathways, indicating that organic N plays a vital role in the cycle. The mineralization rate in the soil layer during the snow season is an important link in the N cycle. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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