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Volume 9
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Forests, Volume 9, Issue 10 (October 2018) – 79 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Ten years on from Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) inception, we analyse the potential of REDD+ to contribute to a broad range of SDG targets. We use the 17 SDGs and 169 Targets as an evaluative framework and reveal the potential synergies between REDD+ projects and a key component of the contemporary global development agenda. Both REDD+ and the SDGs represent aspirational ambitions for the global community, but much of their potential depends on the ways in which these goals are translated into meaningful and verifiable local actions. Photo by Nicolas Tubbs, of the Gola REDD+ project, Sierra Leone. View the paper here.
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13 pages, 5775 KiB  
Article
Instantaneous Cutting Force Variability in Chainsaws
by Adam Maciak, Magda Kubuśka and Tadeusz Moskalik
Forests 2018, 9(10), 660; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100660 - 22 Oct 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4369
Abstract
Chainsaws with chipper-type chains are widely used in timber harvesting. While existing research on such saws assumes a continuous cutting process, the objectives of the present study were to determine whether or not that is true, as well as to measure instantaneous cutting [...] Read more.
Chainsaws with chipper-type chains are widely used in timber harvesting. While existing research on such saws assumes a continuous cutting process, the objectives of the present study were to determine whether or not that is true, as well as to measure instantaneous cutting forces and active cutting time (the time during which the chainsaw cutters are actually engaged with the wood sample). Tests were conducted on a special experimental stand enabling cutting force measurement with a frequency of 60 kHz. The test material was air-dry pine wood. The feed force range was 51–118 N. The chain was tensioned. The study revealed considerable variability in instantaneous cutting force, which was correlated with the rotational speed of the chainsaw engine, as indicated by frequency analysis. Furthermore, the process of cutting with chainsaws was shown to be discontinuous, and a cutter engagement time ratio was defined as the proportion of active cutting time to the overall time of chainsaw operation when making the cut. It was also found that active cutting time was directly proportionate to the applied feed force and inversely proportionate to the rotational speed of the chainsaw engine. The results may be practically applied to establish an optimum range of rotational speed that should be maintained by the operator to maximize cutting efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Operations: Planning, Innovation and Sustainability)
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9 pages, 1499 KiB  
Article
Comparing Methods for Monitoring Establishment of the Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus planipennis, Coleoptera: Buprestidae) Egg Parasitoid Oobius agrili (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) in Maryland, USA
by David E. Jennings, Jian J. Duan and Paula M. Shrewsbury
Forests 2018, 9(10), 659; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100659 - 22 Oct 2018
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4494
Abstract
The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (EAB), is an invasive beetle that has caused widespread mortality of ash trees in North America. To date, four parasitoids have been introduced in North America for EAB biological control, including the egg parasitoid Oobius agrili [...] Read more.
The emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire (EAB), is an invasive beetle that has caused widespread mortality of ash trees in North America. To date, four parasitoids have been introduced in North America for EAB biological control, including the egg parasitoid Oobius agrili Zhang & Huang (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Monitoring EAB egg parasitism is challenging because female beetles oviposit in bark crevices and EAB eggs and O. agrili are small (<1 mm in diameter). Consequently, multiple methods have been developed to recover this parasitoid. Here we compared two methods, visual surveys and bark sifting, used to monitor establishment of O. agrili in Maryland, USA. From 2009 to 2015, a total of 56,176 O. agrili were released at 32 sites across the state. In 2016, we surveyed nine of the study sites for O. agrili establishment using both methods. We compared the amount of time spent searching for eggs separately in each method, and also analyzed the effects of years-post release, total number of parasitoids released, and median month of release, on percent parasitism of EAB eggs, and the percentage of trees per site with parasitized EAB eggs. We found that visually surveying ash trees for EAB eggs was more efficient than bark sifting; the percent parasitism observed using the two methods was similar, but visually surveying trees was more time-efficient. Both methods indicate that O. agrili can successfully establish populations in Maryland, and June may be the best month to release O. agrili in the state. Future research should investigate EAB phenology in the state to help optimize parasitoid release strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impacts, Monitoring and Management of Forest Pests and Diseases)
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17 pages, 4193 KiB  
Article
Engaging Middle School Students in Authentic Scientific Practices Can Enhance Their Understanding of Ecosystem Response to Hurricane Disturbance
by Steven McGee, Amanda M. Durik, Jess K. Zimmerman, Randi McGee-Tekula and Jennifer Duck
Forests 2018, 9(10), 658; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100658 - 22 Oct 2018
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4239
Abstract
Ecosystem response to hurricane disturbance is complex and multi-faceted. The likelihood of increased frequency of severe hurricanes creates a need for the general public to understand how ecosystems respond to hurricanes. Yet, opportunities to study disturbances to complex systems are rare in U.S. [...] Read more.
Ecosystem response to hurricane disturbance is complex and multi-faceted. The likelihood of increased frequency of severe hurricanes creates a need for the general public to understand how ecosystems respond to hurricanes. Yet, opportunities to study disturbances to complex systems are rare in U.S. K–12 schools. Educators and researchers in the Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research program used the results of research on ecosystem response to hurricane disturbance in the Luquillo Experimental Forest as a foundation for the development of Journey to El Yunque, a web-based, middle-school curriculum unit. The program engages students in using models as evidence to develop explanations for how particular species respond to hurricane disturbance. Prior research in education has shown that engaging students in a particular role, like that of a scientist, could have detrimental effects on students’ abilities to transfer what is learned from one context to another. In this research, we sought to understand whether having students engage in authentic scientific practices could support transfer of knowledge to the abstract context of a standards-based assessment. Students were randomly assigned to engage in the program in the role of a scientist or in the role of a student learning about an ecosystem. The dependent variables included students’ comprehension of the background readings, their predictions of population changes, and their overall learning of ecology. The results indicate that taking on a scientist role during the learning activities had an indirect effect on general ecology knowledge by increasing the quality of students’ notetaking during background reading. The results also indicate that students struggled to use their knowledge to develop a robust explanation for how species respond to hurricane disturbance. Journey to El Yunque provides a framework for engaging students in authentic investigations of hurricane disturbance. Future research will examine how to improve the quality of students’ final explanations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Responses to Large-Scale Wind Disturbance)
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14 pages, 2924 KiB  
Article
Responses of Soil Organic Carbon Sequestration Potential and Bacterial Community Structure in Moso Bamboo Plantations to Different Management Strategies in Subtropical China
by Chuanbao Yang, Zheke Zhong, Xiaoping Zhang, Fangyuan Bian and Xuhua Du
Forests 2018, 9(10), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100657 - 20 Oct 2018
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 3636
Abstract
Moso bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants in the world. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of converting secondary broadleaf evergreen forests (CK) to Moso bamboo plantations, and the impact of different management strategies, including no disturbance (M0), [...] Read more.
Moso bamboo is one of the fastest-growing plants in the world. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of converting secondary broadleaf evergreen forests (CK) to Moso bamboo plantations, and the impact of different management strategies, including no disturbance (M0), extensive management (M1), and intensive management (M2), on the soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration potential, and relevant characteristics of the soil bacterial community. Our results showed that, in comparison with CK, M0 and M1 had significantly higher SOC and recalcitrant organic materials (aliphatic and aromatic compounds), and a lower C mineralization rate, whereas M2 had the opposite effects. The conversion from CK to Moso bamboo plantation significantly decreased the relative abundance of Acidobacteria in both the topsoil and subsoil soil layers. Compared with CK, M0 led to the enrichment of bacteria such as Alphaproteobacteria, Chloroflexi, and Bacteroidetes, which are involved in the decomposition of organic matter and the formation of humus and are, therefore, potentially beneficial for increasing the SOC. Furthermore, the ratio of the microbial biomass C (MBC) to total organic C (TOC), C mineralization rate, and bacterial diversity increased from M0 to M2, i.e., with an increase in the disturbance intensity. These findings indicate that the conversion of secondary broadleaf forest to bamboo forest alter the soil bacterial community structure. Reducing disturbance in bamboo forest management strategies should be actively taken up to improve the SOC, and maintain sustainable development in the forest industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Carbon Dynamics under Changing Climate and Disturbance Regimes)
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12 pages, 1722 KiB  
Article
Impacts of Climate Change and Bioenergy Markets on the Profitability of Slash Pine Pulpwood Production in the Southeastern United States
by Andres Susaeta and Pankaj Lal
Forests 2018, 9(10), 656; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100656 - 20 Oct 2018
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3330
Abstract
In this study, we assessed the impacts of climate change on the production of pulpwood and biomass for bioenergy, and the profitability of slash pine stands in the Southeastern United States. We employed the 3-PG (Physiological Processes Predicting Growth) model to determine the [...] Read more.
In this study, we assessed the impacts of climate change on the production of pulpwood and biomass for bioenergy, and the profitability of slash pine stands in the Southeastern United States. We employed the 3-PG (Physiological Processes Predicting Growth) model to determine the effects of future climates on forest growth and integrated it with a stand-level economic model to determine their impacts on optimal forest management. We found that the average production of pulpwood increased for all sites by 7.5 m3 ha−1 for all climatic scenarios and productivity conditions. In the case of forest biomass for bioenergy, the average increase was less than 1 Mg ha−1. Considering a payment for forest biomass for bioenergy of $4.2 per green Mg−1, the land expectation values (LEVs), on average, increased by $242.1 ha−1 under extreme climatic conditions and high productivity conditions. However, the increase in LEVs due to payments for biomass for bioenergy was small, accounting for $23 ha−1. We also found that the combined effect of increased site productivity and climate change reduced the optimal harvest age of slash pine. Our results confirm that emerging bioenergy markets coupled with changing climatic conditions can increase the economic returns for landowners. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Bioenergy and Bioproducts)
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24 pages, 4320 KiB  
Article
Stakeholder Assessment of the Feasibility of Poplar as a Biomass Feedstock and Ecosystem Services Provider in Southwestern Washington, USA
by Noelle M. Hart, Patricia A. Townsend, Amira Chowyuk and Rick Gustafson
Forests 2018, 9(10), 655; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100655 - 20 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 6759
Abstract
Advanced Hardwood Biofuels Northwest (AHB), a USDA NIFA-funded consortium of university and industry partners, identified southwestern Washington as a potential location for a regional bioproducts industry using poplar trees (Populus spp.) as the feedstock. In this qualitative case study, we present the [...] Read more.
Advanced Hardwood Biofuels Northwest (AHB), a USDA NIFA-funded consortium of university and industry partners, identified southwestern Washington as a potential location for a regional bioproducts industry using poplar trees (Populus spp.) as the feedstock. In this qualitative case study, we present the results of an exploratory feasibility investigation based on conversations with agricultural and natural resources stakeholders. This research complements a techno-economic modelling of a hypothetical biorefinery near Centralia, WA, USA. Interviews and group discussions explored the feasibility of a poplar-based bioproducts industry in southwestern WA, especially as it relates to converting land to poplar farms and the potential for poplar to provide ecosystem services. Stakeholders revealed challenges to local agriculture, past failures to profit from poplar (for pulp/sawlogs), land-use planning efforts for flood mitigation and salmon conservation, questions about biorefinery operations, and a need for a new economic opportunity that “pencils out”. Overall, if the business model is convincing, participants see chances for win-win situations where landowners could profit growing poplar on otherwise low-value acreage and achieve ecosystem services for wastewater or floodplain management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Short Rotation Woody Crop Production Systems for Ecosystem Services and Phytotechnologies)
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26 pages, 3003 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Impact Assessment of Miscanthus Crop for Sustainable Household Heating in Serbia
by Milica Perić, Mirko Komatina, Dragi Antonijević, Branko Bugarski and Željko Dželetović
Forests 2018, 9(10), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100654 - 20 Oct 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4823
Abstract
This paper investigates the environmental impacts and energy benefits of the cultivation of Miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deu.), in order to initiate its use in sustainable household heating in the Republic of Serbia. Based on the analysis of available data [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the environmental impacts and energy benefits of the cultivation of Miscanthus (Miscanthus × giganteus Greef et Deu.), in order to initiate its use in sustainable household heating in the Republic of Serbia. Based on the analysis of available data regarding the use of agricultural machinery in Serbia, a Miscanthus supply chain is constructed and examined in detail, scrutinizing all relevant operations—from planting of rhizomes to thermal energy production. Results of the life cycle assessment identify the briquetting process as the most environmentally burdensome operation due to high electricity consumption and low productivity. It is concluded that an average yield of 23.5 t dry matter (d.m.) year−1 obtained from 1 ha of chernozem soil would have energy output:energy input (EO:EI) ratio of 51:1, and would release 365.5 gigajoules (GJ) of heat during combustion in a boiler. With this amount of energy, around 383 m2 of a free-standing family house in Serbia can be heated annually. The same amount of energy is obtained by the combustion of 22 t of lignite or 23 t of wood logs. The substitution of lignite and wood with Miscanthus briquettes would lead to significant reduction of CO2 equivalents (eq), SO2 eq, P eq, N eq, 1,4 dichlorobenzene (1,4-DB) eq, Non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC), PM10 eq and U235 eq emissions. This designates Miscanthus as a more sustainable energy solution for household heating. In instances where more modern agricultural machinery is used, emission reduction is higher, except for CO2 eq due to higher emission factors predicted for more powerful engines. Depending on Miscanthus’ annual yield, the replacement of set-aside land with Miscanthus plantations result in carbon (C) sequestration from 0.08 t C ha−1 year−1 to 0.91 t C ha−1 year−1. In a modern machinery scenario, C sequestration is only attainable when maximal Miscanthus yield is obtained. The combined use of machinery with different engine power is the best option for Miscanthus cultivation in Serbia. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Bioenergy and Bioproducts)
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12 pages, 2640 KiB  
Article
Belowground Carbohydrate Reserves of Mature Southern Pines Reflect Seedling Strategy to Evolutionary History of Disturbance
by Joshua T. Mims, Joseph J. O’Brien and Doug P. Aubrey
Forests 2018, 9(10), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100653 - 19 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3062
Abstract
Carbohydrate reserves provide advantages for mature trees experiencing frequent disturbances; however, it is unclear if selective pressures operate on this characteristic at the seedling or mature life history stage. We hypothesized that natural selection has favored carbohydrate reserves in species that have an [...] Read more.
Carbohydrate reserves provide advantages for mature trees experiencing frequent disturbances; however, it is unclear if selective pressures operate on this characteristic at the seedling or mature life history stage. We hypothesized that natural selection has favored carbohydrate reserves in species that have an evolutionary history of frequent disturbance and tested this using three southern pine species that have evolved across a continuum of fire frequencies. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) roots exhibited higher maximum starch concentrations than slash (P. elliottii) and loblolly (P. taeda), which were similar. Longleaf also relied on starch reserves in roots more than slash or loblolly, depleting 64, 41, and 23 mg g−1 of starch, respectively, between seasonal maximum and minimum, which represented 52%, 45%, and 26% of reserves, respectively. Starch reserves in stems did not differ among species or exhibit temporal dynamics. Our results suggest that an evolutionary history of disturbance partly explains patterns of carbohydrate reserves observed in southern pines. However, similarities between slash and loblolly indicate that carbohydrate reserves do not strictly follow the continuum of disturbance frequencies among southern pine, but rather reflect the different seedling strategies exhibited by longleaf compared to those shared by slash and loblolly. We propose that the increased carbohydrate reserves in mature longleaf may simply be a relic of selective pressures imposed at the juvenile stage that are maintained through development, thus allowing mature trees to be more resilient and to recover from chronic disturbances such as frequent fire. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Longleaf Pine)
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23 pages, 5081 KiB  
Article
Assessing Ecosystem Services from the Forestry-Based Reclamation of Surface Mined Areas in the North Fork of the Kentucky River Watershed
by Kumari Gurung, Jian Yang and Lei Fang
Forests 2018, 9(10), 652; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100652 - 19 Oct 2018
Cited by 28 | Viewed by 5801
Abstract
Surface mining is a major driver of land use land cover (LULC) change in many mountainous areas such as the Appalachian region. Typical reclamation practices often result in land cover dominated by grass and shrubs. Assessing ecosystem services that can be obtained from [...] Read more.
Surface mining is a major driver of land use land cover (LULC) change in many mountainous areas such as the Appalachian region. Typical reclamation practices often result in land cover dominated by grass and shrubs. Assessing ecosystem services that can be obtained from a forest landscape may help policy-makers and other stakeholders fully understand the benefits of forestry-based reclamation (FRA). The objectives of this study are to (1) identify how surface mining and reclamation changed the LULC of a watershed encompassing the north fork of the Kentucky River, (2) assess the biophysical value of four major ecosystem services under the contemporary LULC condition, and (3) assess the benefits of the FRA scenario in the provision of ecosystem services. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to study the LULC change and InVEST software models for ecosystem services assessment. The results indicate that watershed’s forest area has decreased by 7751 hectares from 2001 to 2011 and mining/reclamation activities may have contributed 65% of the overall changes in LULC. Barren and grassland land covers provide less carbon storage, yield more water, and export more sediments and nutrients than forests. At the watershed level, the FRA scenario increased carbon storage (13%) and reduced water yield (5%), sediment export (40%), and nutrient export (7%). The provision of these ecosystem services varies at the subwatershed level, and such spatial heterogeneity is primarily driven by land cover composition, precipitation, and topography. This study provides critical information regarding the ecological benefits of restoring mined land to assist policy and decision making at landscape scales. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Landscape Ecology: Linking Past, Present, and Future Data)
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23 pages, 6905 KiB  
Article
Recent Trends in Large Hardwoods in the Pacific Northwest, USA
by Jonathan W. Long, Andrew Gray and Frank K. Lake
Forests 2018, 9(10), 651; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100651 - 19 Oct 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4391
Abstract
Forest densification, wildfires, and disease can reduce the growth and survival of hardwood trees that are important for biological and cultural diversity within the Pacific Northwest of USA. Large, full-crowned hardwoods that produce fruit and that form large cavities used by wildlife were [...] Read more.
Forest densification, wildfires, and disease can reduce the growth and survival of hardwood trees that are important for biological and cultural diversity within the Pacific Northwest of USA. Large, full-crowned hardwoods that produce fruit and that form large cavities used by wildlife were sustained by frequent, low-severity fires prior to Euro-American colonization. Shifts in fire regimes and other threats could be causing declines in, large hardwood trees. To better understand whether and where such declines might be occurring, we evaluated recent trends in Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data from 1991–2016 in California and southern Oregon. We included plots that lay within areas of frequent fire regimes during pre-colonial times and potential forest habitats for fisher, a rare mammal that depends on large live hardwoods. We analyzed changes in basal area for eight hardwood species, both overall and within size classes, over three time periods within ecoregions, and in public and private land ownerships. We found the basal area to generally be stable or increasing for these species. However, data for California black oak suggested a slight decline in basal area overall, and among both very large trees and understory trees; that decline was associated with fire mortality on national forest lands. In addition, mature trees with full crowns appeared to sharply decline across all species. Many trends were not statistically significant due to high variation, especially since more precise data from remeasured trees were only available for the two most recent time periods. Continued analysis of these indicators using remeasured trees will help to evaluate whether conservation efforts are sustaining large, full-crowned trees and their associated benefits. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hardwood Reforestation and Restoration)
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14 pages, 1111 KiB  
Article
Costs and Challenges of Log Truck Transportation in Georgia, USA
by Joseph L. Conrad IV
Forests 2018, 9(10), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100650 - 18 Oct 2018
Cited by 36 | Viewed by 6035
Abstract
In the Southern U.S., timber is transported from harvest sites to mills by many small trucking companies. Few studies have examined the structure and challenges facing these businesses. This study involved interviews with 18 log truck owners operating in the state of Georgia, [...] Read more.
In the Southern U.S., timber is transported from harvest sites to mills by many small trucking companies. Few studies have examined the structure and challenges facing these businesses. This study involved interviews with 18 log truck owners operating in the state of Georgia, USA. Participants operated in all forested regions of Georgia and included wood dealers, contract haulers, logging businesses, logging and trucking businesses, and large, diversified trucking businesses. Fleet sizes ranged from zero trucks (recently ceased hauling) to more than 50 log trucks. Log trucks were driven an average of 127,324 km year−1 and delivered an average of 17,410 t year−1. Participants averaged 48% loaded km. Analysis suggests the current combination of average payload, percent-loaded km, and published haul rates make it difficult for log trucking companies to be profitable. The most important challenges faced by log truck owners were a shortage of qualified drivers and rising truck insurance premiums, which were identified as the greatest challenge by 44% and 39% of participants, respectively. Increasing percent-loaded km, reducing turn times at mills and harvest sites, providing driver training, and adopting technologies, such as global positioning system tracking and onboard cameras, could improve transportation efficiency and safety. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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17 pages, 2042 KiB  
Article
What Governs Tree Harvesting in Community Forestry—Regulatory Instruments or Forest Bureaucrats’ Discretion?
by Sony Baral and Harald Vacik
Forests 2018, 9(10), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100649 - 18 Oct 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4540
Abstract
Community forestry is required to follow a forest management plan (FMP) to ensure sustainable tree harvesting. However, the role of FMPs or forest bureaucrats’ discretion in guiding harvesting decisions and the resultant effects has not been explored. This paper investigates tree harvesting practices [...] Read more.
Community forestry is required to follow a forest management plan (FMP) to ensure sustainable tree harvesting. However, the role of FMPs or forest bureaucrats’ discretion in guiding harvesting decisions and the resultant effects has not been explored. This paper investigates tree harvesting practices in community forests (CF) and its effects on forest sustainability, using the forest inventory panel dataset for three consecutive periods (2010, 2013 and 2016), together with qualitative information obtained by key informant interviews and a review of records of the community forest users’ group. Harvesting decisions in the CF are largely guided by the decrees or schematic instructions of forest bureaucrats, where the role of the FMP remains highly contested. Whether harvesting decisions should be guided by the prescriptions of the FMP or should be regulated through decrees is a matter of discourse. Forest bureaucrats are arbitrarily reducing harvesting quantities and rarely referring to the prescriptions of the FMP. Consequently, users are compelled to harvest less than half the quantity of trees prescribed in the FMP. Furthermore, they are only allowed to harvest poor quality and dead trees. As a result, the number of good quality trees has increased, while the number of seedlings and saplings has decreased significantly. Although harvesting of saplings and seedlings is a common practice, it is against the provisions of the FMP. Though the current bureaucratic discretion has shown quick short-term effects on the forest stand conditions, the long-term impacts should not be undermined. Our findings will be useful to implementors and policy makers in Nepal and other developing countries with similar circumstances for deciding the tree harvesting. We argue for a rational approach in designing harvesting prescriptions and complying with them rather than regulating harvesting practices through guidelines, circulars and bureaucratic discretion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)
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22 pages, 3934 KiB  
Review
Managing Wildfire for Whitebark Pine Ecosystem Restoration in western North America
by Robert E. Keane
Forests 2018, 9(10), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100648 - 18 Oct 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4535
Abstract
Wildfire in declining whitebark pine forests can be a tool for ecosystem restoration or an ecologically harmful event. This document presents a set of possible wildfire management practices for facilitating the restoration of whitebark pine across its range in Western North America. These [...] Read more.
Wildfire in declining whitebark pine forests can be a tool for ecosystem restoration or an ecologically harmful event. This document presents a set of possible wildfire management practices for facilitating the restoration of whitebark pine across its range in Western North America. These management actions are designed to enhance whitebark pine resilience and health, while also being effective wildfire management measures. The actions are presented by the three phases of the wildfire continuum: Before, during, and after a wildfire. Current pre-wildfire restoration actions, such as mechanical thinning’s, prescribed burning, and fuel treatments, can also be designed to be fuel treatment activities that allow more effective suppression of wildfires when needed. Three wildfire strategies can be implemented while the wildfire is burning—full suppression, partial suppression, and wildland fire use (letting some fires burn under acceptable conditions)—for protecting valuable whitebark pine trees and for ecosystem restoration. Finally, post-wildfire activities include planting rust-resistant seedlings and monitoring effects of the wildfires. Recommended wildfire management practices for the wildfire continuum are specified by region, site type, and stand type in the last section of this paper. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Restoration of Whitebark Pine)
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19 pages, 3802 KiB  
Article
Climate Sensitivity of Tropical Trees Along an Elevation Gradient in Rwanda
by Myriam Mujawamariya, Aloysie Manishimwe, Bonaventure Ntirugulirwa, Etienne Zibera, Daniel Ganszky, Elisée Ntawuhiganayo Bahati, Brigitte Nyirambangutse, Donat Nsabimana, Göran Wallin and Johan Uddling
Forests 2018, 9(10), 647; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100647 - 17 Oct 2018
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 5592
Abstract
Elevation gradients offer excellent opportunities to explore the climate sensitivity of vegetation. Here, we investigated elevation patterns of structural, chemical, and physiological traits in tropical tree species along a 1700–2700 m elevation gradient in Rwanda, central Africa. Two early-successional (Polyscias fulva, [...] Read more.
Elevation gradients offer excellent opportunities to explore the climate sensitivity of vegetation. Here, we investigated elevation patterns of structural, chemical, and physiological traits in tropical tree species along a 1700–2700 m elevation gradient in Rwanda, central Africa. Two early-successional (Polyscias fulva, Macaranga kilimandscharica) and two late-successional (Syzygium guineense, Carapa grandiflora) species that are abundant in the area and present along the entire gradient were investigated. We found that elevation patterns in leaf stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration (E), net photosynthesis (An), and water-use efficiency were highly season-dependent. In the wet season, there was no clear variation in gs or An with elevation, while E was lower at cooler high-elevation sites. In the dry season, gs, An, and E were all lower at drier low elevation sites. The leaf-to-air temperature difference was smallest in P. fulva, which also had the highest gs and E. Water-use efficiency (An/E) increased with elevation in the wet season, but not in the dry season. Leaf nutrient ratios indicated that trees at all sites are mostly P limited and the N:P ratio did not decrease with increasing elevation. Our finding of strongly decreased gas exchange at lower sites in the dry season suggests that both transpiration and primary production would decline in a climate with more pronounced dry periods. Furthermore, we showed that N limitation does not increase with elevation in the forests studied, as otherwise most commonly reported for tropical montane forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling Tropical Forest Dynamics through Their Functional Traits in a Climate Change Century)
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22 pages, 3072 KiB  
Article
Population Structure, Genetic Diversity, and Gene Introgression of Two Closely Related Walnuts (Juglans regia and J. sigillata) in Southwestern China Revealed by EST-SSR Markers
by Xiao-Ying Yuan, Yi-Wei Sun, Xu-Rong Bai, Meng Dang, Xiao-Jia Feng, Saman Zulfiqar and Peng Zhao
Forests 2018, 9(10), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100646 - 16 Oct 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 5577
Abstract
The common walnut (Juglans regia L.) and iron walnut (J. sigillata Dode) are well-known economically important species cultivated for their edible nuts, high-quality wood, and medicinal properties and display a sympatric distribution in southwestern China. However, detailed research on the genetic [...] Read more.
The common walnut (Juglans regia L.) and iron walnut (J. sigillata Dode) are well-known economically important species cultivated for their edible nuts, high-quality wood, and medicinal properties and display a sympatric distribution in southwestern China. However, detailed research on the genetic diversity and introgression of these two closely related walnut species, especially in southwestern China, are lacking. In this study, we analyzed a total of 506 individuals from 28 populations of J. regia and J. sigillata using 25 EST-SSR markers to determine if their gene introgression was related to sympatric distribution. In addition, we compared the genetic diversity estimates between them. Our results indicated that all J. regia populations possess slightly higher genetic diversity than J. sigillata populations. The Geostatistical IDW technique (HO, PPL, NA and PrA) revealed that northern Yunnan and Guizhou provinces had high genetic diversity for J. regia while the northwestern Yunnan province had high genetic diversity for J. sigillata. AMOVA analysis revealed that significant genetic variation was mainly distributed within population as 73% in J. regia and 76% in J. sigillata. The genetic differentiation (FST) was 0.307 between the two walnut species (p < 0.0001), which was higher than FST values within populations (J. regia FST = 0.265 and J. sigillata FST = 0.236). However, the STRUCTURE analysis of the J. regia and J. sigillata populations revealed two genetic clusters in which gene introgression exists, therefore, the boundary of separation between these two walnut species is not clear. Moreover, these results were validated by NJ and UPGMA analysis with additional conformation from the PCoA. Based on the SSR data, our results indicate that J. sigillata is an ecotype of J. regia. Taken together, these results reveal novel information on population genetics and provide specific geographical regions containing high genetic diversity of the Juglans species sampled, which will assist in future conservation management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Diversity of Tree Species in Forest and Conservation Management)
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19 pages, 7669 KiB  
Article
Hydrology of Drained Peatland Forest: Numerical Experiment on the Role of Tree Stand Heterogeneity and Management
by Leena Stenberg, Kersti Haahti, Hannu Hökkä, Samuli Launiainen, Mika Nieminen, Ari Laurén and Harri Koivusalo
Forests 2018, 9(10), 645; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100645 - 16 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3953
Abstract
A prerequisite for sustainable peatland forestry is sufficiently low water table (WT) level for profitable tree production. This requires better understanding on controls and feedbacks between tree stand and its evapotranspiration, drainage network condition, climate, and WT levels. This study explores the role [...] Read more.
A prerequisite for sustainable peatland forestry is sufficiently low water table (WT) level for profitable tree production. This requires better understanding on controls and feedbacks between tree stand and its evapotranspiration, drainage network condition, climate, and WT levels. This study explores the role of spatial tree stand distribution in the spatiotemporal distribution of WT levels and site water balance. A numerical experiment was conducted by a three-dimensional (3-D) hydrological model (FLUSH) applied to a 0.5 ha peatland forest assuming (1) spatially uniform interception and transpiration, (2) interception and transpiration scaled with spatial distributions of tree crown and root biomass, and (3) the combination of spatially scaled interception and uniform transpiration. Site water balance and WT levels were simulated for two meteorologically contrasting years. Spatial variations in transpiration were found to control WT levels even in a forest with relatively low stand stem volume (<100 m3/ha). Forest management scenarios demonstrated how stand thinning and reduced drainage efficiency raised WT levels and increased the area and duration of excessively wet conditions having potentially negative economic (reduced tree growth) and environmental (e.g., methane emissions, phosphorus mobilization) consequences. In practice, silvicultural treatment manipulating spatial stand structure should be optimized to avoid emergence of wet spots. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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13 pages, 1941 KiB  
Article
Changes in Soil Arthropod Abundance and Community Structure across a Poplar Plantation Chronosequence in Reclaimed Coastal Saline Soil
by Yuanyuan Li, Han Y. H. Chen, Qianyun Song, Jiahui Liao, Ziqian Xu, Shide Huang and Honghua Ruan
Forests 2018, 9(10), 644; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100644 - 15 Oct 2018
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3693
Abstract
Poplar plantations have the capacity to improve the properties of soils in muddy coastal areas; however, our understanding of the impacts of plantation development on soil arthropods remains limited. For this study, we determined the community dynamics of soil dwelling arthropods across poplar [...] Read more.
Poplar plantations have the capacity to improve the properties of soils in muddy coastal areas; however, our understanding of the impacts of plantation development on soil arthropods remains limited. For this study, we determined the community dynamics of soil dwelling arthropods across poplar plantations of different ages (5-, 10-, and 21-years) over the course of one year in Eastern Coastal China. The total abundance of soil arthropods differed with stand development. Further, there were some interactions that involved the sampling date. On average, total abundance was highest in the 10-year-old stands and lowest in the 5-year-old stands. Total abundance exhibited strong age-dependent trends in June and September, but not in March or December. The abundance of Prostigmata and Oribatida increased in the 5- to 21-year-old stands, with the highest levels being in the 10-year-old stands. The abundance of Collembola increased with stand development; however, the stand age had no significant impact on the abundance of epedapic, hemiedaphic, and euedaphic Collembola. Order richness (Hill number q = 0) curve confidence intervals overlapped among three stand ages. Shannon and Simpson diversity (Hill numbers q = 1 and q = 2) differed between 10- and 21-year-old stand age. They showed almost similar trends, and the highest and lowest values were recorded in the 21- and 10-year-old stand ages, respectively. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance demonstrated that composition also varied significantly with the sampling date and stand age, and the 10-year-old stands that were sampled in June stood well-separated from the others. Indicator analysis revealed that Scolopendromorpha and Prostigmata were indicators in June for the 10-year-old stands, while Collembola were indicators for the 21-year-old stands sampled in September. Our results highlight that both stand development and climate seasonality can significantly impact soil arthropod community dynamics in the reclaimed coastal saline soils of managed poplar plantations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Causes and Consequences of Species Diversity in Forest Ecosystems)
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17 pages, 5024 KiB  
Article
Natural and Synthetic Hydrophilic Polymers Enhance Salt and Drought Tolerance of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and W.C.Cheng Seedlings
by Jing Li, Xujun Ma, Gang Sa, Dazhai Zhou, Xiaojiang Zheng, Xiaoyang Zhou, Cunfu Lu, Shanzhi Lin, Rui Zhao and Shaoliang Chen
Forests 2018, 9(10), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100643 - 15 Oct 2018
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 4330
Abstract
We compared the effects of hydrophilic polymer amendments on drought and salt tolerance of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and W.C.Cheng seedlings using commercially available Stockosorb and Luquasorb synthetic hydrogels and a biopolymer, Konjac glucomannan (KGM). Drought, salinity, or the combined stress of both drought [...] Read more.
We compared the effects of hydrophilic polymer amendments on drought and salt tolerance of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu and W.C.Cheng seedlings using commercially available Stockosorb and Luquasorb synthetic hydrogels and a biopolymer, Konjac glucomannan (KGM). Drought, salinity, or the combined stress of both drought and salinity caused growth retardation and leaf injury in M. glyptostroboides. Under a range of simulated stress conditions, biopolymers and synthetic hydrogels alleviated growth inhibition and leaf injury, improved photosynthesis, and enhanced whole-plant and unit transpiration. For plants subjected to drought conditions, Stockosorb hydrogel amendment specifically caused a remarkable increase in water supply to roots due to the water retention capacity of the granular polymer. Under saline stress, hydrophilic polymers restricted Na+ and Cl− concentrations in roots and leaves. Moreover, root K+ uptake resulted from K+ enrichment in Stockosorb and Luquasorb granules. Synthetic polymers and biopolymers increased the ability of M. glyptostroboides to tolerate combined impacts of drought and salt stress due to their water- and salt-bearing capacities. Similar to the synthetic polymers, the biopolymer also enhanced M. glyptostroboides drought and salt stress tolerance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological Responses to Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Forest Trees)
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21 pages, 5719 KiB  
Article
Disentangling Contributions of CO2 Concentration and Climate to Changes in Intrinsic Water-Use Efficiency in the Arid Boreal Forest in China’s Altay Mountains
by Guobao Xu, Xiaohong Liu, Soumaya Belmecheri, Tuo Chen, Guoju Wu, Bo Wang, Xiaomin Zeng and Wenzhi Wang
Forests 2018, 9(10), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100642 - 13 Oct 2018
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3889
Abstract
Intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) is affected by the balance of photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and climate, along with many other exogenous factors, such as the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere (CO2atm), nutrients, and water holding capacity of the [...] Read more.
Intrinsic water-use efficiency (iWUE) is affected by the balance of photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, and climate, along with many other exogenous factors, such as the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere (CO2atm), nutrients, and water holding capacity of the soil. The relative contributions of CO2atm and climate to iWUE are still incompletely understood, particularly for boreal forests where the climate is undergoing unprecedented warming. We combined δ13C and δ18O in tree rings from the Siberian larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) in Northwestern China’s Altay Mountains, which receives 190 mm in annual precipitation, to detect the drivers of long-term iWUE changes and their time-varying contributions over the past 222 years. A climate optimization approach was used to isolate the influence of climate from CO2atm influence on iWUE. We found that iWUE increased about 33.6% from 1790 to 2011, and rising CO2atm contributed 48.8% to this iWUE increase. The contributions of CO2atm and climate (drought conditions) varied during the study period 1790–2011. From 1790 to 1876, the climate was the most important factor contributing to the changes in iWUE. From 1877 to 1972, CO2atm was the main contributor; however, after 1973, the climate was again the dominant contributor to the increase in iWUE, especially during 1996–2011. During the period 1996–2011, climate substantially (83%) contributed to the iWUE increase. Our findings imply that, in the boreal forest in Northwestern China’s arid region, iWUE experienced three changes: (1) the climate dominating from 1790 to 1876; (2) CO2atm dominating from 1877 to 1972, and (3) climate dominating again during the past four decades. We observed that the relationships between iWUE and tree-ring width shifted from positive to negative from 1996 onwards. These relationship changes indicate that CO2atm-mediated effects of increasing iWUE on tree growth are counteracted by climatic drought stress and iWUE increase cannot counter the stress from drought on tree growth in China’s arid boreal forest. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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17 pages, 2136 KiB  
Article
Effects of Douglas Fir Stand Age on Soil Chemical Properties, Nutrient Dynamics, and Enzyme Activity: A Case Study in Northern Apennines, Italy
by Livia Vittori Antisari, Ruxandra Papp, Gilmo Vianello and Sara Marinari
Forests 2018, 9(10), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100641 - 13 Oct 2018
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4044
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a Douglas fir plantation along a stand chronosequence in the North Apennine (Italy) on soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, as well as on soil chemical and biochemical properties involved in the nutrients [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a Douglas fir plantation along a stand chronosequence in the North Apennine (Italy) on soil carbon and nitrogen stocks, as well as on soil chemical and biochemical properties involved in the nutrients biogeochemical cycle. In 2014, three sites of Douglas fir stands, aged 80, 100, and 120 years, were selected in Vallombrosa forest to study the dynamics of soil nutrients in the ecosystem. Along the Douglas fir chronosequence, general evidence of surface element accumulation was found, including a conspicuous increase of alkaline element with respect to Al, which was attributed to the increase of soil pH along the Douglas fir stand age classes. A general increase of specific enzyme activity (per unit of organic carbon) and functional diversity were observed in the epipedon of the Douglas fir stand over 100 years of age. Moreover, the (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) to acid phosphatase ratio progressively increased from 0.15 to 0.31 in the epipedon of the chrononsequence, while the β-glucosidase to (chitinase + leucine aminopeptidase) ratio decreased from 1.45 to 0.83, suggesting nitrogen limitation with respect to carbon. In fact, the soil carbon stock progressively increased along the chronosequence, in the epipedon from 17 to 53 Mg C ha−1 and in the endopedon from 17 to 37 Mg C ha−1. Conversely, the soil nitrogen stock increased from 1.2 to 2.4 Mg N ha−1, but not over the 100-year-old stand class. In conclusion, soil organic matter accumulation became sufficient to define the umbric horizon in the Northern Apennines when the Douglas fir plantation reached the age of 100 years. Over this age class of plants, a limitation of soil nitrogen may occur, affecting enzyme activities regulating the biogeochemical cycle of nutrients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Planted Forests and Climate Change—Selected Papers from the IUFRO 125th Anniversary Congress)
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14 pages, 2844 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Strip Roads on the Productivity of Spruce Plantations
by Andrius Kuliešis, Marius Aleinikovas, Edgaras Linkevičius, Andrius A. Kuliešis, Jonas Saladis, Mindaugas Škėma, Benas Šilinskas and Lina Beniušienė
Forests 2018, 9(10), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100640 - 13 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2972
Abstract
Strip roads serve to enable silviculture operations, maintain biodiversity, and decrease damages to the soil and environment. At the same time, strip roads decrease the productive area. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of strip roads on the productivity [...] Read more.
Strip roads serve to enable silviculture operations, maintain biodiversity, and decrease damages to the soil and environment. At the same time, strip roads decrease the productive area. The aim of this study is to evaluate the influence of strip roads on the productivity of spruce plantations growing in different density regimes. Five trials, each of 0.234 ha area, with different density regimes and two replications in an experimental spruce plantation were used for this study. The permanent plots were established in the plantation of 15 years of age and were remeasured every 4–5 years over 24 years. Differences in tree growth between outer rows bordering strip roads and inner rows, 1.75 and 3.5 m from the strip road, were estimated using t statistics. The gross annual increment of trees in outer rows at age 39 years exceeded the increment of trees in inner rows by up to 60%–78%. Increase of productivity occurred primarily due to the more intensive diameter growth and higher density of trees in the outer rows. In general, the influence of strip roads on the total productivity of plantation depends on the ratio of the growth intensity of trees between outer and inner rows as well as ratio of the width of treed strips to the width of the strip road. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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15 pages, 2412 KiB  
Article
Predicting Tree Diameter Distributions from Airborne Laser Scanning, SPOT 5 Satellite, and Field Sample Data in the Perm Region, Russia
by Jussi Peuhkurinen, Timo Tokola, Kseniia Plevak, Sanna Sirparanta, Alexander Kedrov and Sergey Pyankov
Forests 2018, 9(10), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100639 - 13 Oct 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4122
Abstract
A tree list is a list of trees in the area of interest containing, for example, the species, diameter, height, and stem volume of each tree. Tree lists can be used to derive various characteristics of the growing stock, and are therefore versatile [...] Read more.
A tree list is a list of trees in the area of interest containing, for example, the species, diameter, height, and stem volume of each tree. Tree lists can be used to derive various characteristics of the growing stock, and are therefore versatile and informative sources of data for several forest management purposes. Especially in heterogonous and unmanaged forest structures with multiple species, tree list estimates imputed from local reference field data can provide an alternative to mean value estimates of growing stock (e.g., basal area, total stem volume, mean tree diameter, mean tree height, and number of trees). In this study, reference field plots, airborne laser scanning (ALS) data, and SPOT 5 satellite (Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre) imagery were used for tree list imputation applying the k most similar neighbors (k-MSN) estimation method in the West Ural taiga region of the Russian Federation for diameter distribution estimation. In k-MSN, weighted average of k field reference plots with highest similarity between field reference plot and target (forest grid cell, or field plot) based on ALS and SPOT 5 features were used to predict the mean values of growing stock and tree lists for the target object simultaneously. Diameter distributions were then constructed from the predicted tree lists. The prediction of mean values and diameter distributions was tested in 18 independent validation plots of 0.25–0.5 ha in size, whose species specific diameter distributions were measured in the field and grouped into three functional groups (Pines, Spruce/Fir, Broadleaf Group), each containing several species. In terms of root mean squared error relative to mean of validation plots, the accuracy of estimation was 0.14 and 0.17 for basal area and total stem volume, respectively. Reynolds error index values and visual inspection showed encouraging results in evaluating the goodness-of-fit statistics of the estimated diameter distributions. Although estimation accuracy was worse for functional group mean values and diameter distributions, the results indicate that it is possible to predict diameter distributions in forests of the test area with the tested methodology and materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Predicting Vegetation Size Maps)
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16 pages, 715 KiB  
Article
How REDD+ Is Performing Communities
by Margaret Skutsch and Esther Turnhout
Forests 2018, 9(10), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100638 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5584
Abstract
Community based approaches are becoming the norm in environmental governance initiatives. One prominent example of this is Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), a climate change mitigation strategy that aims at reducing carbon emissions caused by deforestation and forest degradation in [...] Read more.
Community based approaches are becoming the norm in environmental governance initiatives. One prominent example of this is Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+), a climate change mitigation strategy that aims at reducing carbon emissions caused by deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries. REDD+ policies generally evoke communities as both potential beneficiaries of REDD+ and as agents for its implementation. However, it is unclear what REDD+ policies are really referring to when they talk about communities. Drawing on critical social science literature about the idea of community, this article advances a performative perspective to analyze how communities are articulated in international and national REDD+ policy, and reflects on the potential implications of these articulations. Results reveal that international policy documents, including those of the major non-governmental organizations (NGOs) engaged in REDD+, tend to present an interpretation that corresponds to Agrawal and Gibson’s myth of communities as small, localized, and homogenous social units that share social norms. On the other hand, national policy documents reveal enormous variety in the communities that are actually targeted in national REDD+ policies in terms of resources, governance structure, and social cohesion. One conclusion that could be drawn from this is that the dominant uniform interpretation of communities in REDD+ policy, and in much academic and NGO literature, is clearly unrealistic. However, this does not mean that it is inconsequential. We conclude our article by discussing the performative effects of the identified articulations of community. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Performance of REDD+: From Global Governance to Local Practices)
10 pages, 2030 KiB  
Article
Land Use and Landscape Pattern Changes in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China
by Xiaohui Liu, Yu An, Guihua Dong and Ming Jiang
Forests 2018, 9(10), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100637 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3766
Abstract
Agricultural reclamation has been the major threat to land use changes in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China, over the past decades. However, spatial and temporal dynamics of land use and landscape, especially in the recent years, are not well known. In this study, [...] Read more.
Agricultural reclamation has been the major threat to land use changes in the Sanjiang Plain, Northeast China, over the past decades. However, spatial and temporal dynamics of land use and landscape, especially in the recent years, are not well known. In this study, land use and landscape pattern changes from 1982 to 2015 were analyzed using remote sensing data by splitting the period into five periods. The results indicated that the largest reduction of forestland area was 648.70 km2 during 1995–2000, and the relative change was −1.84%. The converted area of forestlands to dry farmlands in this period was about 90% of the total reduced forestland area. Marshland areas decreased remarkably by 63.29% and paddy fields increased by 1.78 times from 1982 to 2015. Paddy fields experienced large conversion into dry farmlands during 2005–2010 (1788.57 km2), followed by a reverse conversion from 1995 to 2000 (2379.60 km2). The difference of relative change revealed development speed of paddy field was faster than that of dry farmlands among the five periods. Landscape pattern was analyzed using class- and landscape-level metrics. The landscape diversity index and number of patches increased, which showed that the degrees of the forestland, marshland, and cropland landscape fragmentation were aggravated. Our study provides the effective means of land use dynamic monitoring and evaluation at the landscape level for the existing forestlands and marshlands protection. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technical Advances: Explore Forest Landscape Ecology and Biodiversity Using Geographic Information Science)
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14 pages, 1669 KiB  
Article
Genetic Diversity and Population Genetic Structure of Erythrophleum fordii Oliv., an Endangered Rosewood Species in South China
by Jing Tan, Zhi-Gang Zhao, Jun-Jie Guo, Chun-Sheng Wang and Jie Zeng
Forests 2018, 9(10), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100636 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3842
Abstract
Erythrophleum fordii Oliv. is a valuable rosewood species indigenous to the tropical and warm sub-tropical zones of Vietnam, Laos, and South China. The natural forests have been heavily fragmented mostly due to over-exploitation and over-utilization, and alteration to croplands and fast-growing plantations. Therefore, [...] Read more.
Erythrophleum fordii Oliv. is a valuable rosewood species indigenous to the tropical and warm sub-tropical zones of Vietnam, Laos, and South China. The natural forests have been heavily fragmented mostly due to over-exploitation and over-utilization, and alteration to croplands and fast-growing plantations. Therefore, it has been included in the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species as an endangered species. In the present study, genetic diversity and population genetic structure of 11 populations were estimated by SSR makers in South China. Five high polymorphic loci were studied with a total of 34 alleles, among which, seven were private alleles. The mean number of alleles per locus (A), the mean number of efficient alleles per locus (Ae), the observed (Ho) and expected (He) heterozygosity, and Shannon’s index (I) of the 11 populations were 3.40, 2.31, 0.52, 0.56, and 0.90, respectively. Correlation analysis between genetic parameters and geographical factors showed that He and I were in significant negative correlation with longitude, indicating that genetic diversity of E. fordii reduced gradually from West to East in south China. FIS of eight populations with above five samples was on average 0.01, most loci conformed to Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in these populations; their genetic differentiation coefficient (FST) was 0.18, indicating that genetic differentiation among populations was relatively low and there existed 18% genetic variation among populations. Gene flow (Nm) between these populations was 1.28. The Mantel test showed that genetic distance was not significantly correlated with geographical distance (p > 0.05). It was concluded that populations with high genetic diversity or private alleles, especially Longmen, Wuming and Pingxiang populations should be a priority for in situ conservations, meanwhile more populations and as many families as possible in each population should be collected for ex situ conservations of germplasm resources of this species in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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19 pages, 3491 KiB  
Article
Whitebark Pine Prevalence and Ecological Function in Treeline Communities of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, U.S.A.: Potential Disruption by White Pine Blister Rust
by Aaron C. Wagner, Diana F. Tomback, Lynn M. Resler and Elizabeth R. Pansing
Forests 2018, 9(10), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100635 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4519
Abstract
In the northern Rocky Mountains of the U.S. and Canada, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) is a functionally important species in treeline communities. The introduced fungal pathogen Cronartium ribicola, which causes white pine blister rust, has led to extensive whitebark pine [...] Read more.
In the northern Rocky Mountains of the U.S. and Canada, whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis Engelm.) is a functionally important species in treeline communities. The introduced fungal pathogen Cronartium ribicola, which causes white pine blister rust, has led to extensive whitebark pine mortality nearly rangewide. We examined four treeline communities within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) to assess structure and composition, whitebark pine prevalence and functional role, differences in growing season mesoclimate among study areas, and blister rust infection incidence. We found that (1) whitebark pine frequently serves as the majority overall, solitary, and leeward tree island conifer; (2) the prevalence of different tree species in the windward position in tree islands, and thus their potential as tree island initiators, may be predicted from their relative abundance as solitary trees; and (3) white pine blister rust infection incidence ranged from 0.6% to 18.0% across study areas. White pine blister rust poses a threat to treeline development and structure and the provision of ecosystem services in the GYE. Increasing blister rust resistance in nearby subalpine whitebark pine communities through seedling planting or direct seeding projects should eventually result in higher levels of blister rust resistance in whitebark pine in treeline communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Restoration of Whitebark Pine)
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16 pages, 2464 KiB  
Article
Differences in the Response to Acute Drought and Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands Infection in Quercus ilex L. Seedlings
by Francisco J. Ruiz Gómez, Alejandro Pérez-de-Luque, Rafael Sánchez-Cuesta, José L. Quero and Rafael M. Navarro Cerrillo
Forests 2018, 9(10), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100634 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5795
Abstract
The sustainability of “dehesas” is threatened by the Holm oak decline. It is thought that the effects of root rot on plant physiology vary depending on external stress factors. Plant growth and biomass allocation are useful tools to characterize differences in the response [...] Read more.
The sustainability of “dehesas” is threatened by the Holm oak decline. It is thought that the effects of root rot on plant physiology vary depending on external stress factors. Plant growth and biomass allocation are useful tools to characterize differences in the response to drought and infection. The study of physiological responses together with growth patterns will clarify how and to what extent root rot is able to damage the plant. A fully factorial experiment, including drought and Phytophtora cinnamomi Rands infection as factors, was carried out with Quercus ilex L. seedlings. Photosynthesis, biomass allocation and root traits were assessed. Photosynthetic variables responded differently to drought and infection over time. The root mass fraction showed a significant reduction due to infection. P. cinnamomi root rot altered the growth patterns. Plants could not recover from the physiological effects of infection only when the root rot coincided with water stress. Without additional stressors, the strategy of our seedlings in the face of root rot was to reduce the biomass increment and reallocate resources. Underlying mechanisms involved in plant-pathogen interactions should be considered in the study of holm oak decline, beyond the consideration of water stress as the primary cause of tree mortality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phytophthora Infestations in Forest Ecosystems)
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20 pages, 4669 KiB  
Article
Forty-Eight Years of Forest Succession: Tree Species Change across Four Forest Types in Mid-Missouri
by Benjamin O. Knapp and Stephen G. Pallardy
Forests 2018, 9(10), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100633 - 12 Oct 2018
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4398
Abstract
In the central and eastern United States, many forest ecosystems have undergone recent shifts in composition and structure that may conflict with contemporary management objectives. Long-term forest inventory data were used to determine patterns of forest succession over a 48-year period for four [...] Read more.
In the central and eastern United States, many forest ecosystems have undergone recent shifts in composition and structure that may conflict with contemporary management objectives. Long-term forest inventory data were used to determine patterns of forest succession over a 48-year period for four forest types in mid-Missouri: bottomlands, dry ridge and slope, glade-like, and mesic slopes. All forest types increased in stand basal area and overstory quadratic mean diameter through time, with concomitant decreases in the number of midstory trees. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum Marshall) increased in importance value on dry ridge and slope and mesic slope forest types, largely due to the accumulation of trees in smaller diameter classes. White oak (Quercus alba L.) increased in overstory basal area in dry ridge and slope plots through the duration of the study, whereas black oak (Quercus velutina Lam.) and Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii Buckley) decreased in overstory density and basal area through time. Oak stems were nearly absent from the midstory across forest types in the recent sampling, suggesting future challenges for maintaining oak-dominated canopies following attrition of canopy trees through time on upland forest types. In glade-like plots, eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana L.) increased in both overstory density and basal area through time, and Shumard oak decreased in density. The importance value of chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii Engelm.) in the overstory decreased through time in glade-like plots, largely due to the increase in density of eastern redcedar rather than the loss of chinkapin oak from the overstory. The patterns of succession in this forest landscape of mid-Missouri suggest that forest management may be needed to address two common contemporary concerns: (1) the need for increasing oak advance reproduction and recruitment to maintain oak as a canopy species; and (2) reducing eastern redcedar encroachment for glade restoration and management. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)
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21 pages, 3252 KiB  
Article
Species Mixing Regulation with Respect to Forest Ecosystem Service Provision
by Fabian Schwaiger, Werner Poschenrieder, Peter Biber and Hans Pretzsch
Forests 2018, 9(10), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100632 - 11 Oct 2018
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4308
Abstract
The control and maintenance of species composition of mixed stands is a highly relevant objective of forest management in order to provide multifunctionality and climatic resilience. In contrast to this requirement there is, however, an evident lack of quantitative methods for mixture regulation. [...] Read more.
The control and maintenance of species composition of mixed stands is a highly relevant objective of forest management in order to provide multifunctionality and climatic resilience. In contrast to this requirement there is, however, an evident lack of quantitative methods for mixture regulation. In this context, we propose an approach for the regulation of mixture proportions that has been implemented in a forest management model. The approach considers species-specific growth characteristics and takes into account the mixing effect on stand density. We present five exemplary simulations that apply the regulation. Each simulation maintains one of five desired species compositions. In these simulations, we consider the species European beech and Norway spruce under good site conditions, thus representing the most prominent mixed stands in Central Europe. Based on this model experiment, we analyze the potential benefit of controlled mixing regulation for achieving desired levels and combinations of ecosystem service provision, in particular productivity, diversity, and groundwater recharge. We found that a constant 50% basal area share of beech (equivalent growing space share of 80% to 70% depending on stand age) provided the most balanced supply of ecosystem services. Prominently, groundwater recharge considerably decreased when beech basal area shares were held below 50%. We discuss the ecological and practical implications of the regulation approach and different mixing shares. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Decision Support to Address Multiple Ecosystem Services in Forest Management Planning)
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19 pages, 3474 KiB  
Article
How to Calibrate Historical Aerial Photographs: A Change Analysis of Naturally Dynamic Boreal Forest Landscapes
by Niko Kulha, Leena Pasanen and Tuomas Aakala
Forests 2018, 9(10), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/f9100631 - 11 Oct 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3320
Abstract
Time series of repeat aerial photographs currently span decades in many regions. However, the lack of calibration data limits their use in forest change analysis. We propose an approach where we combine repeat aerial photography, tree-ring reconstructions, and Bayesian inference to study changes [...] Read more.
Time series of repeat aerial photographs currently span decades in many regions. However, the lack of calibration data limits their use in forest change analysis. We propose an approach where we combine repeat aerial photography, tree-ring reconstructions, and Bayesian inference to study changes in forests. Using stereopairs of aerial photographs from five boreal forest landscapes, we visually interpreted canopy cover in contiguous 0.1-ha cells at three time points during 1959–2011. We used tree-ring measurements to produce calibration data for the interpretation, and to quantify the bias and error associated with the interpretation. Then, we discerned credible canopy cover changes from the interpretation error noise using Bayesian inference. We underestimated canopy cover using the historical low-quality photographs, and overestimated it using the recent high-quality photographs. Further, due to differences in tree species composition and canopy cover in the cells, the interpretation bias varied between the landscapes. In addition, the random interpretation error varied between and within the landscapes. Due to the varying bias and error, the magnitude of credibly detectable canopy cover change in the 0.1-ha cells depended on the studied time interval and landscape, ranging from −10 to −18 percentage points (decrease), and from +10 to +19 percentage points (increase). Hence, changes occurring at stand scales were detectable, but smaller scale changes could not be separated from the error noise. Besides the abrupt changes, also slow continuous canopy cover changes could be detected with the proposed approach. Given the wide availability of historical aerial photographs, the proposed approach can be applied for forest change analysis in biomes where tree-rings form, while accounting for the bias and error in aerial photo interpretation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Landscape Ecology: Linking Past, Present, and Future Data)
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