Forests

17 pages, 2164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Stand Structures and Carbon Storage Potential of Mangroves in Chaungkaphee Protected Public Forest, Tanintharyi Coastal Region, Myanmar

by Aung Wunna Tun, Xiaojuan Tong, Wai Nyein Aye and Jun Li

Forests 2025, 16(3), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030554 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 394

Abstract

Coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, are essential for ecological stability and human livelihoods, yet they face significant degradation from natural and anthropogenic pressures. This study focuses on the Chaungkaphee Protected Public Forest (PPF) in the Tanintharyi region of Myanmar, which hosts diverse mangrove species [...] Read more.

Coastal ecosystems, particularly mangroves, are essential for ecological stability and human livelihoods, yet they face significant degradation from natural and anthropogenic pressures. This study focuses on the Chaungkaphee Protected Public Forest (PPF) in the Tanintharyi region of Myanmar, which hosts diverse mangrove species critical for carbon storage. Between 2010 and 2020, mangrove forest cover in Myanmar decreased from 540,000 ha to 431,228 ha, resulting in a loss of 108,772 ha. This decline is primarily attributed to illegal logging and agricultural expansion. Our research aims to assess the structural characteristics, biomass, and carbon storage potential of mangrove ecosystems within the Chaungkaphee PPF. Field data collected in early 2024 applied non-destructive sampling methods to gather information on tree structure, species composition, and soil carbon stocks. We identified six dominant mangrove species, with Rhizophora apiculata Blume showing the highest biomass and carbon storage potential. The total biomass was measured at 493.91 Mg ha⁻¹, yielding a carbon stock of 218.76 Mg C ha⁻¹. Soil carbon assessments revealed an average organic carbon stock of 921.09 Mg C ha⁻¹, underscoring the vital role of soil in carbon sequestration. Our findings highlight the significant contribution of mangrove ecosystems to climate change mitigation, emphasizing the urgent need for effective conservation strategies and community involvement in restoration efforts. This study enhances the understanding of mangrove resilience and sustainability, advocating for the protection of these crucial ecosystems amidst ongoing environmental challenges. By recognizing the ecological functions and services provided by mangroves, we can better address the threats they face and promote their restoration for future generations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Forest Carbon, Water Use and Growth Under Climate Change)

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16 pages, 3219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Bamboo-Sourced Organic Fertilizer on the Soil Microbial Necromass Carbon and Its Contribution to Soil Organic Carbon in Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) Forest

by Zhiyuan Huang, Qiaoling Li, Fangyuan Bian, Zheke Zhong and Xiaoping Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030553 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 171

Abstract

Microbial necromass carbon (MNC) is crucial for soil carbon sequestration in bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) forests. However, the response of MNC to bamboo-sourced organic fertilizers (BSOF) prepared by composting bamboo plant growth-promoting microorganisms and bamboo residues remains unclear. This study [...] Read more.

Microbial necromass carbon (MNC) is crucial for soil carbon sequestration in bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) forests. However, the response of MNC to bamboo-sourced organic fertilizers (BSOF) prepared by composting bamboo plant growth-promoting microorganisms and bamboo residues remains unclear. This study examined MNC and its contribution to soil organic carbon (SOC) in Moso bamboo plantations under four BSOF treatments: control (CK, 0 t·hm⁻²), low fertilizer application (LF, 7.5 t·hm⁻²), medium fertilizer application (MF, 15 t·hm⁻²), and high fertilizer application (HF, 30 t·hm⁻²) across 0–20 cm and 20–40 cm soil layers. In these two layers, HF and MF significantly (p < 0.05) increased the total MNC, fungal necromass carbon (FNC), and their contributions to SOC compared to CK, and HF led to higher (p < 0.05) bacterial necromass carbon (BNC) levels and SOC contributions than LF and CK. Soil depth and BSOF treatment were found to interact significantly. A random forest model showed that in the 0–20 cm layer, SOC was the best predictor of total MNC and FNC, whereas available potassium was optimal for BNC. Nitrate-nitrogen (NO₃⁻-N) was the top predictor for total MNC, BNC, and FNC in the 20–40 cm layer. Partial least squares path modeling indicated that available soil nutrients directly influenced BNC and FNC, affecting SOC accumulation. These findings suggest a new method for enhancing soil carbon sequestration in bamboo forests. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecological Research in Bamboo Forests: 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 39464 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genome-Wide Identification of Rubber Tree LRR-RLK Genes and Functional Characterization of HbPSKR2 (HbLRR-RLK174)

by Xiaoyu Du, Jie Jin, Shaohua Wu, Xiaomin Deng, Shuguang Yang, Minjing Shi and Jinquan Chao

Forests 2025, 16(3), 552; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030552 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 168

Abstract

As one of the largest gene families in plants, the Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor-Like Kinase (LRR-RLK) genes are involved in important biological processes, such as plant growth and development and response to bio-/abiotic stresses. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg.) [...] Read more.

As one of the largest gene families in plants, the Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor-Like Kinase (LRR-RLK) genes are involved in important biological processes, such as plant growth and development and response to bio-/abiotic stresses. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Müll. Arg.) is the primary commercial source of natural rubber globally. In this study, 274 LRR-RLK genes were comprehensively identified and classified into 21 subclades of the rubber tree genome. Members belonging to the same subclade exhibited comparable gene structures and possessed conserved protein motifs. Gene duplication analysis detected 35 tandem duplication genes and 81 segmental duplication genes. Cis-element analysis of HbLRR-RLK promoters identified light, hormone, stress, and development-related cis-elements. Tissue-specific expression profiling revealed that 73% (200/274) of HbLRR-RLKs were expressed in at least one of seven analyzed tissues. Protein–protein interaction (PPI) network identified 584 potential interactions among the HbLRR-RLKs. Additionally, subcellular localization analysis suggested that HbPSKR2 (HbLRR-RLK174) is a plasma membrane-localized receptor, and the gene could restore the short-root phenotype of the atpskr mutant in Arabidopsis. These results provide a comprehensive structure to facilitate analysis of the evolution and functional diversification of LRR-RLKs in the rubber tree. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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25 pages, 2284 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does Collective Forest Tenure Reform Improve Forest Carbon Sequestration Efficiency and Rural Household Income in China?

by Xixian Zheng, Ruohan Peng and Wenmei Liao

Forests 2025, 16(3), 551; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030551 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 231

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of China’s Collective Forest Tenure Reform (CFTR) on forest carbon sequestration efficiency and rural household income, two critical indicators of ecological sustainability and economic development. Using a difference-in-differences (DID) approach, the study analyzes data from 31 provinces between [...] Read more.

This study investigates the impact of China’s Collective Forest Tenure Reform (CFTR) on forest carbon sequestration efficiency and rural household income, two critical indicators of ecological sustainability and economic development. Using a difference-in-differences (DID) approach, the study analyzes data from 31 provinces between 1997 and 2014. The results indicate that CFTR significantly enhances forest carbon sequestration efficiency through land use optimization and industrial structure upgrading. Moreover, the reform positively influences rural household income by increasing timber yield and facilitating labor mobility. The study also explores the heterogeneity of these impacts across regions, income levels, carbon sequestration efficiency levels, and carbon trading pilot areas. These findings provide valuable insights for policymakers aiming to balance ecological sustainability and economic growth through targeted forestry management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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16 pages, 6645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Distribution Changes and Factor Analysis of Topsoil Organic Carbon Across Different Forest Types on Hainan Island

by Xiang Zhang, Zhongyi Sun, Yinqi Zheng, Lu Dong, Peng Wang, Jie Zhang, Jingli Lu and Lan Wu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 550; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030550 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Topsoil organic carbon (SOC, 0–20 cm) is crucial for terrestrial carbon stocks and the global carbon cycle. This study integrated field survey data, re-analysis climatic data, and remote sensing-derived environmental factors to examine SOC distribution and its drivers across forest types on Hainan [...] Read more.

Topsoil organic carbon (SOC, 0–20 cm) is crucial for terrestrial carbon stocks and the global carbon cycle. This study integrated field survey data, re-analysis climatic data, and remote sensing-derived environmental factors to examine SOC distribution and its drivers across forest types on Hainan Island using machine learning models and statistical analysis. The results showed that univariate analysis had limited explanatory power for forest SOC, with terrestrial plantations exhibiting significantly lower SOC than mangroves and natural forests. For mangroves, vapor pressure deficit (VPD) was the most influential factor, followed by precipitation (PRE), the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), and forest age; meanwhile, for terrestrial forests, VPD, altitude, PRE, and NDVI were vital drivers. The optimal models demonstrated relatively stronger predictive performance (R² = 0.71 for mangroves; R² = 0.81 for terrestrial forests). Mangroves showed higher average SOC (27.91 g/kg) than terrestrial forests (15.82 g/kg), while higher concentrations in the central–western region were attributed to natural terrestrial forests. This study reveals the spatial variation patterns of forest SOC and its environmental regulation mechanisms on Hainan Island, providing important references for forest carbon stock management and environmental protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon Dynamics of Forest Soils Under Climate Change)

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19 pages, 9069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Species Differentiation of Two Endemic Montane Oaks in China: Population Genetics, Ecological Niche and Leaf Morphology Analyses

by Zhi-Mei Chang, Lu-Lu Zhang, Yun-Ju Huang, Xiao-Dan Chen and Jia Yang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 549; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030549 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 216

Abstract

Oaks in the genus Quercus L. are keystone species in the forest ecosystem and are considered ideal models for the study of plant evolution. In this research, we applied population genetics, ecological niche analysis and phenotypic traits to explore patterns of species differentiation [...] Read more.

Oaks in the genus Quercus L. are keystone species in the forest ecosystem and are considered ideal models for the study of plant evolution. In this research, we applied population genetics, ecological niche analysis and phenotypic traits to explore patterns of species differentiation and demographic history of two Chinese montane oak species (Quercus baronii Skan and Quercus dolicholepis A. Camus) from Quercus section Ilex across species distribution ranges. Analyses of population genetics with ten nuclear microsatellite loci on 33 populations of the two oak species indicated great interspecific genetic variations with distinct genetic backgrounds for the two oaks. Simulations on species demography suggested a speciation-without-migration model as the best to explain species divergence, while an approximate Bayesian computation analysis indicated that the two studied oak species probably split at about 17.80–28.48 Ma. A comparison of two core bioclimatic factors and ecological niche tests revealed strong niche differentiation between the two oak species, and association analysis also found a significantly positive correlation between interspecific genetic variations and bioclimatic distances. Additionally, analyses of the leaf morphology of 117 specimens with five quantitative characteristics showed clear species discrepancy between Q. baronii and Q. dolicholepis. Based on this evidence from genetic, ecological and phenotypic analyses, our research indicated clear species differentiation between Q. baronii and Q. dolicholepis, possibly in relation to an early species divergence and varying adaptative features of the two oaks shaped by heterogeneous environments within Qinling-Daba Mountains and surroundings. This study provides an example for future investigation of species differentiation and evolution among related oak species with integrated analyses and highlights the importance of ecological conditions on adaptive evolution and genetic conservation of endemic tree species in montane regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Diversity of Forest: Insights on Conservation)

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18 pages, 8730 KiB

Open AccessArticle

How Prescribed Burning Affects Surface Fine Fuel and Potential Fire Behavior in Pinus yunnanensis in China

by Xilong Zhu, Shiying Xu, Ruicheng Hong, Hao Yang, Hongsheng Wang, Xiangyang Fang, Xiangxiang Yan, Xiaona Li, Weili Kou, Leiguang Wang and Qiuhua Wang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 548; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030548 - 20 Mar 2025

Viewed by 220

Abstract

Forest fine fuels are a crucial component of surface fuels and play a key role in igniting forest fires. However, despite nearly 20 years of long-term prescribed burning management on Zhaobi Mountain in Xinping County, Yunnan Province, China, there remains a lack of [...] Read more.

Forest fine fuels are a crucial component of surface fuels and play a key role in igniting forest fires. However, despite nearly 20 years of long-term prescribed burning management on Zhaobi Mountain in Xinping County, Yunnan Province, China, there remains a lack of specific quantification regarding the effectiveness of fine fuel management in Pinus yunnanensis forests. In this study, 10 m × 10 m sample plots were established on Zhaobi Mountain following one year of growth after prescribed burning. The plots were placed in a prescribed burning (PB) area and an unburned control (UB) area. We utilized indicators such as forest stand characteristics, fine fuel physicochemical properties, and potential fire behavior parameters for evaluation. The results indicate that prescribed burning at one-year intervals significantly affects stand characteristics, particularly in metrics such as crown base height, diameter breast height, and fuel load (p < 0.05). However, the physical and chemical properties of fine fuels did not show significant differences. Notably, the mean range of spread (RS) of PB fuels downhill was 43.3% lower than that of UB fuels, and the mean flaming height (FH) was 35.2% lower. The fire line intensity was <750 kW/m, categorizing it as a low-intensity fire. These findings provide data on the composition of fine fuels and the variables of fire behavior affected by prescribed burning, demonstrating that low-intensity prescribed burns can regulate fine fuels in the understory and maintain a stable regional fire risk level. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Ecology and Management in Forest—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 8099 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Microbial Communities and Their Relationship with Soil Nutrients in Different Density Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica Plantations in the Mu Us Sandy Land

by Long Hai, Mei Zhou, Kai Zhao, Guangyu Hong, Zihao Li, Lei Liu, Xiaowei Gao, Zhuofan Li and Fengzi Li

Forests 2025, 16(3), 547; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030547 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 250

Abstract

In the Mu Us Sandy Land, vegetation is closely related to soil microorganisms and nutrients. However, research on the relationship between soil microbial communities and nutrients in Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantations of different densities is still imperfect. This study selected Pinus sylvestris [...] Read more.

In the Mu Us Sandy Land, vegetation is closely related to soil microorganisms and nutrients. However, research on the relationship between soil microbial communities and nutrients in Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantations of different densities is still imperfect. This study selected Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantations with high, medium, and low densities, as well as bare sandy land, to analyze the relationship between vegetation density and soil nutrients, microbial community structure, and diversity indices. The results show that the following: (1) Medium-density plantations significantly increased soil organic matter, total nitrogen, and total potassium content, which were 4.3 times that of bare sandy land and 1.7 times that of high-density plantations; (2) In high-density plantations, the relative abundance of bacterial phyla Actinobacteriota and fungal phylum Ascomycota was higher; as plantation density decreased, the relative abundance of bacterial phyla Proteobacteria and Acidobacteriota and fungal phylum Basidiomycota increased, with different density plantations significantly affecting soil microbial community structure; (3) High-density plantations significantly increased the abundance of bacterial and fungal genera but also reduced bacterial diversity indices, while medium-density plantations were outstanding in enhancing fungal species richness and diversity, with the highest fungal Shannon index, indicating that medium density is conducive to fungal diversity enhancement; (4) Soil organic matter, total nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, and pH value were the main environmental factors affecting soil microbial community structure. High-density plantations significantly affected soil microbial community structure by changing these soil nutrients and physicochemical properties, especially related to changes in total potassium and pH value. This study clarified the effects of Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantation density on soil nutrients and microbial community structure, revealing the intrinsic connection between soil nutrients and microbial communities, providing a theoretical basis for vegetation restoration in the Mu Us Sandy Land ecosystem, and helping to formulate scientific management strategies for Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica plantations to improve sandy land soil quality and promote the sustainable development of sandy land ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soil Organic Matter Dynamics and Microbial Roles in Biogeochemical Cycles in Forestry)

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42 pages, 3747 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Critical Review of Methods and Techniques Used for Monitoring Deformations in Wooden Panel Paintings

by Claudia Gagliardi, Lorenzo Riparbelli, Paola Mazzanti and Marco Fioravanti

Forests 2025, 16(3), 546; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030546 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 191

Abstract

Wooden panel paintings (WPPs) are among the most significant historical artworks that must be preserved for future generations. Ensuring their long-term conservation requires a comprehensive characterization of their condition, making monitoring an essential process. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to [...] Read more.

Wooden panel paintings (WPPs) are among the most significant historical artworks that must be preserved for future generations. Ensuring their long-term conservation requires a comprehensive characterization of their condition, making monitoring an essential process. Thus, the primary objective of this study is to provide a comprehensive overview of the current techniques employed to study support deformations in WPPs, categorizing them into localized and full-field methods. Specifically, we provide information about linear potentiometric transducers, the Deformometric Kit, and Fiber Bragg Grating sensors as techniques that provide information about specific and isolated points on the artwork’s surface. On the other hand, digital image correlation, stereo-correlation, mark-tracking, 3D modeling techniques, and the moiré method, are discussed as techniques that analyze the entire surface or a significant part of the artwork. Each method has advantages and limitations, depending on the type of monitoring needed and the desired information. Nevertheless, these techniques contribute to understanding the behavior of the artworks’ materials under environmental fluctuations or restoration interventions, aiding the development of targeted and effective conservation strategies. Furthermore, this study seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of these methods in various conservation contexts and offers practical guidelines to assist conservators and researchers in selecting the most appropriate approach to support the long-term conservation of these invaluable historical artworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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16 pages, 5587 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Experiments and Simulation on the Effects of Arch Height Variation on the Vibrational Response of Paulownia Wood

by Xiyue Li, Siyuan Wang, Yaqing Guo, Juncheng Zhang, Lan He, Jing Zhou, Yuanyuan Miao and Zhenbo Liu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 545; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030545 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 146

Abstract

Resonance boards of Chinese traditional instruments such as the Guzheng and Guqin typically are arched, with the arch height influencing their resonance characteristics. This study focuses on Paulownia wood utilized for resonance boards. The bottom surfaces were thinned in 1 mm increments, with [...] Read more.

Resonance boards of Chinese traditional instruments such as the Guzheng and Guqin typically are arched, with the arch height influencing their resonance characteristics. This study focuses on Paulownia wood utilized for resonance boards. The bottom surfaces were thinned in 1 mm increments, with vibration signatures acquired at each reduction stage using a multi-channel FFT analyzer. Subsequently, time-domain characteristic parameters of the signals were extracted through MATLAB-based signal processing. Modal and harmonic response simulations of the structure were conducted using finite element software. The results indicated that variations in arch height affected the frequency spectrum response of the vibrations of Paulownia wood, altering the structural energy radiation levels. Lower arch heights (0–2 mm) had a greater impact on the fundamental frequency. The arch height was 1 mm and 2 mm, with R1,1 and R1,2 being −5.31% and −8.62%, respectively. Skewness and kurtosis were negatively correlated with arch height. When ΔH was 3.06, the radiation effect was optimal. The changes in arch height influenced the vibrational modes and energy distribution of Paulownia. Higher arch heights (3–6 mm) have less effect on the fundamental frequency and impose some constraints on the mode vibration pattern. Furthermore, the results of the frequency-domain and time-domain analyses were found to be largely consistent with the finite element simulation results. The results provide guidance for changing the arch height to modulate the acoustic vibration response of the resonance board, which is of significance for the personalized design of future musical instruments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Testing, Processing and Modification)

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16 pages, 4069 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Flame Image Classification Based on Deep Learning and Three-Way Decision-Making

by Xuguang Zhang, Deting Miao and Linping Guo

Forests 2025, 16(3), 544; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030544 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 205

Abstract

The classification and recognition of flame images play an important role in avoiding forest fires. Deep learning technology has shown good performance in flame image recognition tasks. In order to further improve the accuracy of classification, this paper combines deep learning technology with [...] Read more.

The classification and recognition of flame images play an important role in avoiding forest fires. Deep learning technology has shown good performance in flame image recognition tasks. In order to further improve the accuracy of classification, this paper combines deep learning technology with the idea of three-way decision-making. First, a ResNet34 network is used for initial classification. The probability value calculated by the SoftMax function is used as the decision evaluation criterion for initial classification. Using the idea of three-way decision-making, the flame image is divided into positive domain, negative domain, and boundary domain based on decision evaluation indicators. Furthermore, we perform secondary classification on images divided into boundary domains. In the secondary classification, a DualArchClassNet structure was constructed to extract new features and combine them with the features of the initial classification. The integrated features are optimized and used to reclassify images in uncertain domains to improve overall classification accuracy. The experimental results show that the proposed method improves the accuracy of flame image recognition compared to using a single ResNet34 network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fire Ecology and Management in Forest—2nd Edition)

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10 pages, 7283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Predicting Timber Board Foot Volume Using Forest Landscape Model and Allometric Equations Integrating Forest Inventory Data

by Justin Dijak, Hong He and Jacob Fraser

Forests 2025, 16(3), 543; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030543 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 169

Abstract

In this study, we present a methodology for predicting timber board foot volume using a forest landscape model, incorporating allometric equations and forest inventory data. The research focuses on the Ozark Plateau, a 48,000-square-mile region characterized by productive soils and varied precipitation. To [...] Read more.

In this study, we present a methodology for predicting timber board foot volume using a forest landscape model, incorporating allometric equations and forest inventory data. The research focuses on the Ozark Plateau, a 48,000-square-mile region characterized by productive soils and varied precipitation. To simulate timber volume, we used the LANDIS PRO forest landscape model, initialized with forest composition data derived from the USDA Forest Service’s Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) plots. The model accounted for species-specific growth rates and was run from the year 2000 to 2100 at five-year intervals. Timber volume estimates were calculated using both quadratic mean diameter (QMD) and tree diameter in the Hahn and Hansen board foot volume equation. These estimates were compared across different forest types—deciduous, coniferous, and mixed stands—and verified against FIA plot data using a paired permutation test. Results showed high correlations between QMD and tree diameter methods, with a slightly lower volume estimate from the QMD approach. Projections indicate significant increases in board foot volume for key species groups such as red oak and white oak while showing declines toward the end of the model period in groups like shortleaf pine due to age-related mortality and regeneration challenges. The model’s estimates closely align with state-level FIA data, underscoring the effectiveness of the integrated approach. The study highlights the utility of integrating landscape models and forest inventory data to predict timber volume over time, offering valuable insights for forest management and policy planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomass Estimation and Carbon Stocks in Forest Ecosystems: 3rd Edition)

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21 pages, 20072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tree and Liana Growth in Three Neotropical Dry Forests: Coherent Patterns and Individualistic Responses to Climate Variability

by J. Julio Camarero and Cristina Valeriano

Forests 2025, 16(3), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030542 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 162

Abstract

Tropical dry forests (TDFs) are among the ecosystems most threatened by agricultural use and climate warming. However, the long-term growth responses to climate variability of woody plants in TDFs are understudied because not all TDF species form conspicuous annual rings. To address this [...] Read more.

Tropical dry forests (TDFs) are among the ecosystems most threatened by agricultural use and climate warming. However, the long-term growth responses to climate variability of woody plants in TDFs are understudied because not all TDF species form conspicuous annual rings. To address this issue, we sampled trees (26 species) and lianas (2 species) in TDFs subjected to contrasting climate conditions and located in Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia. First, we examined the potential to form conspicuous tree-ring boundaries in 22 tree species (Amyris pinnata, Aspidosperma tomentosum, Beilschmiedia sp., Bursera graveolens, Caesalpinia pluviosa, Ceiba pentandra, Centrolobium microchaete, Citharexylum kunthianum, Cordia alliodora, Croton gossypiifolius, Cupania cinerea, Eugenia sp., Genipa americana, Guarea guidonia, Hymenaea courbaril, Machaerium capote, Pithecellobium dulce, Rapanea guianensis, Sapindus saponaria, Senna spectabilis, Zanthoxylum monophyllum, Zanthoxylum rhoifolium, and Zanthoxylum verrucosum) and two liana species (Bignoniaceae and Combretaceae families). Second, we built mean series of ring-width indices in selected tree (A. tomentosum, B. graveolens, C. alliodora, C. cinerea, C. microchaete, P. dulce, S. spectabilis, and Z. verrucosum) and liana species and related them to climate variables. Wet conditions during the current and prior growing seasons enhanced growth in tree and liana species in different TDFs. Coexisting species showed individualistic responses to climate variability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Woody Plant Ecophysiology, Morphology, and Functional Diversity Across Tropical Forest Ecosystems)

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25 pages, 6503 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variations and Driving Factors of Net Primary Productivity Across Different Climatic Zones in Cambodia and China

by Guihao Qin, Chun Tu, Huaxiong Qin, Yueming Liang, Zeyan Wu and Qiang Li

Forests 2025, 16(3), 541; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030541 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 223

Abstract

Vegetation plays a crucial role in nature-based carbon neutrality solutions, exhibiting a strong correlation with climatic factors. This study employed a modified CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) model to estimate Net Primary Productivity (NPP) across Cambodia, as well as Baise, Guilin and Fenyang from China [...] Read more.

Vegetation plays a crucial role in nature-based carbon neutrality solutions, exhibiting a strong correlation with climatic factors. This study employed a modified CASA (Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach) model to estimate Net Primary Productivity (NPP) across Cambodia, as well as Baise, Guilin and Fenyang from China representing diverse climatic zones—from 2000 to 2020. Spatiotemporal NPP patterns and their underlying mechanisms were investigated using Theil–Sen median analysis, the Mann–Kendall test and land use change matrices. The results indicate that: (1) Mean annual NPP from 2000 to 2020 was 753.68 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹, 960.58 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹, 768.11 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹ and 334.20 gC·m⁻²·a⁻¹ for Cambodia, Baise, Guilin and Fenyang, respectively. While Cambodia showed a non-significant downward trend, the other regions exhibited upward trends. (2) Cambodia’s NPP demonstrated elevated values in the eastern and southwestern regions. Baise and Guilin exhibited higher NPP values at the periphery with lower central values, while Fenyang displayed a northwest–southeast gradient in NPP. (3) Forestland and cultivated land dominated the study areas with a unimodal relationship between elevation and vegetation NPP. (4) Temperature primarily influenced the NPP of Cambodia, Baise and Guilin, and precipitation was the dominant factor in Fenyang. Cambodia (tropical area) and Baise/Guilin (subtropical area), benefiting from favorable hydrothermal conditions, maintained high annual NPP. Fenyang (temperate area), with less favorable conditions, showed a strong positive correlation between precipitation and NPP. Positive correlations existed between NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) and annual mean NPP across all study regions. (5) Annual mean NPP in the study area initially increased with elevation but declined beyond a certain altitude. These findings enhance understanding of vegetation carbon cycling across diverse climatic zones, informing accurate regional carbon sink assessments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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15 pages, 4252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Dynamics of C:N:P Stoichiometry in Tree–Soil Systems: Nutrient Competition and Adaptation Strategies of Four Deciduous Broadleaf Species in Northeast China

by Hao Zhang, Dan Xu, Tianhe Yuan and Ling Yang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 540; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030540 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 141

Abstract

This study investigates the seasonal dynamics and stoichiometric characteristics of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in four representative tree species—Juglans mandshurica Maxim., Phellodendron amurense Rupr. Quercus mongolica Fischer ex Ledebour and Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr.—at the Harbin Urban Forestry Demonstration Base, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the seasonal dynamics and stoichiometric characteristics of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in four representative tree species—Juglans mandshurica Maxim., Phellodendron amurense Rupr. Quercus mongolica Fischer ex Ledebour and Fraxinus mandschurica Rupr.—at the Harbin Urban Forestry Demonstration Base, over the period 2022–2024. We monitored the nutrient content in tree leaves, trunks, branches, shrubs, herbaceous plants, and soil. Specifically, leaf N content in J. mandshurica decreased from 2.5% in May to 1.2% in November, while leaf P content in P. amurense dropped from 0.15% in June to 0.08% by the end of the growing season. Nutrient content in tree trunks and branches increased in the later growth stages, with trunk C content in Q. mongolica rising from 45% in May to 52% in November. Soil nutrients generally decreased over the growing season, with soil P content in F. mandshurica plantations declining from 0.12% in May to 0.06% in September. Moreover, the C:N and C:P ratios in tree and herb leaves, as well as in soil, increased during the growing period, while the N:P ratio in shrubs increased towards the end of the growth cycle. The study found significant correlations between specific nutrients in the leaves of trees and their surrounding soils. For instance, leaf C in J. mandshurica was positively correlated with soil C, while herbaceous plant P was positively correlated with soil N and leaf N with soil P. These relationships suggest that leaf N absorption is limited by soil P and herbaceous P by soil N. The analysis of nutrient correlations between shrubs, herbs, and trees showed a partial positive correlation between understory plants and tree leaf nutrients, indicating relatively weak competition among different plant groups. Furthermore, in P. amurense plantations, the P content in understory herbs was significantly positively correlated with soil P, suggesting that low soil phosphorus limits tree growth in this area. No significant correlation between soil and leaf nutrients was found in Q. mongolica plantations. In contrast, in F. mandshurica plantations, soil C and N were significantly positively correlated with tree leaf C, and understory shrub P and herb P were positively correlated with soil P, suggesting that leaf C absorption is constrained by soil C and N. Overall, this study highlights the nutrient competition between understory vegetation and tree layers, with all species showing a negative correlation between understory vegetation and tree nutrients, indicating nutrient competition. These findings provide valuable insights into the ecological dynamics of urban forests and offer guidance for optimizing urban forest management strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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17 pages, 2795 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solid Microbial Fertilizers Prepared with Different Carriers Have the Potential to Enhance Plant Growth

by Lianhao Sun, Yuexiang Zhou, Hui Nie, Chong Li, Xin Liu, Jie Lin, Xiongfei Zhang and Jinchi Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030539 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 173

Abstract

Microbial inoculants are vital for promoting plant growth and facilitating the ecological restoration of degraded forested regions near abandoned mine sites. However, the direct application of liquid microbial inoculants is often challenging due to low microbial activities and poor transport efficiencies, which limit [...] Read more.

Microbial inoculants are vital for promoting plant growth and facilitating the ecological restoration of degraded forested regions near abandoned mine sites. However, the direct application of liquid microbial inoculants is often challenging due to low microbial activities and poor transport efficiencies, which limit their effectiveness in complex soil environments. To tackle these challenges, this study utilized immobilized microbial technology to evaluate the effectiveness of solid microbial inoculants sourced from peat (P), biochar (BC), and spent mushroom substrates (SMSs) in enhancing the soil’s multifunctionality and promoting plant growth. Specifically, this research sought to assess the effectiveness of solid microbial inoculants derived from peat (P), biochar (B), and spent mushroom substrates (SMSs) in enhancing soil multifunctionality and promoting plant growth in nutrient-deficient soils that were affected by abandoned mine sites. We aimed to evaluate the performance of different solid microbial inoculants in improving the soil’s nutrient content and enzyme activities. A 24-week pot experiment was conducted using Medicago sativa L. in nutrient-poor soil. The results demonstrated that, in contrast to peat and biochar, SMSs effectively interacted with microbial inoculants and significantly improved the nutrient content and enzyme activities of nutrient-deficient soil. It was noted that β-1,4-glucosidase (BG), invertase, β-1,4-N-acetylglucosaminidase (NAG), urease, and soil available phosphorus increased by 204%, 405%, 118%, 198%, and 297%, respectively. The soil’s multifunctionality improved by 320% compared with the CK, and the plant biomass also increased significantly. Further, our random forest analysis indicated that the soil available phosphorus, ammonium nitrogen, total nitrogen, total carbon content, arylsulfatase, pH, total phosphorus, NAG, and BG were key environmental factors that induced changes in plant biomass. These findings highlighted the potential of SMSs as an effective carrier for immobilized microbial inoculants, which provides a sustainable approach for the restoration of forest soils surrounding abandoned mine sites, as well as a promising avenue for the valorization of agricultural waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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20 pages, 3647 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Monitoring and Discrimination of Salt Stress in Salix matsudana × alba Using Vis/NIR-HSI Technology

by Zhenan Chen, Haoqi Wu, Handong Gao, Xiaoming Xue and Guangyu Wang

Forests 2025, 16(3), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030538 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 197

Abstract

(1) Background: Salt stress poses a significant challenge to plant productivity, particularly in forestry and agriculture. This research explored the physiological adaptations of Salix matsudana × alba to varying salt stress levels and assessed the utility of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) integrated with machine [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Salt stress poses a significant challenge to plant productivity, particularly in forestry and agriculture. This research explored the physiological adaptations of Salix matsudana × alba to varying salt stress levels and assessed the utility of hyperspectral imaging (HSI) integrated with machine learning for stress detection; (2) Methods: Physiological metrics, such as photosynthesis, chlorophyll concentration, antioxidant enzyme activity, proline levels, membrane stability, and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation, were analyzed under controlled experimental conditions. Spectral data in the visible (Vis) and near-infrared (NIR) ranges were acquired, with preprocessing techniques enhancing data precision. The study established quantitative detection models for physiological indicators and developed a salt stress monitoring model; (3) Results: Photosynthetic efficiency and chlorophyll synthesis while elevating oxidative damage indicators, including enzyme activity, proline content, and membrane permeability. Strong correlations between spectral signatures and physiological changes highlighted HSI’s effectiveness for early stress detection. Among the machine learning models, the Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) trained on Vis+NIR data with standard normal variate (SNV) preprocessing achieved 100% classification accuracy; (4) Conclusions: The results demonstrated that HSI, coupled with modeling techniques, is a powerful non-invasive tool for real-time monitoring of salt stress, providing valuable insights for early intervention and contributing to sustainable agricultural and forestry practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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15 pages, 5955 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Multi-Omics Analysis Reveals Key Pathways in Chlorophyll Metabolism and Stress Adaptation in Poplar Under Dual Stress

by Linxuan Zhang, Yunxi Zhu, Jiri Stribny, Xinyu Pan, Chengming Tian and Roger Schneiter

Forests 2025, 16(3), 537; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030537 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 217

Abstract

Poplar anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, significantly threatens global poplar cultivation, with rising temperatures further intensifying environmental stress on trees. As autotrophic organisms, plants rely on photosynthesis for growth and stress responses, making this process particularly vulnerable under combined stressors, such as [...] Read more.

Poplar anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, significantly threatens global poplar cultivation, with rising temperatures further intensifying environmental stress on trees. As autotrophic organisms, plants rely on photosynthesis for growth and stress responses, making this process particularly vulnerable under combined stressors, such as heat and pathogen infection. This study investigates the dual-stress response mechanisms of the resistant poplar species Populus × canadensis through integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Results show that C. gloeosporioides inoculation at ambient temperature conditions activates multiple defense-related pathways, including MAPK signaling and ferroptosis. High temperatures amplify these responses, leading to extensive alterations in gene expression, particularly in pathways related to the cell cycle, photosynthesis, and phytohormone signaling. The chlorophyll content, a key marker of photosynthetic efficiency, is significantly reduced under high temperatures, with dual stress causing the most pronounced declines in chlorophyll a and b and total chlorophyll levels. These findings provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying poplar resilience to anthracnose and heat stress, offering a foundation for breeding climate-resilient and pathogen-resistant tree cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Mechanism of Forest Tree Defense against Pathogens and Pests)

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20 pages, 4896 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Criteria Plant Clustering for Carbon-Centric Urban Forestry: Enhancing Sequestration Potential Through Adaptive Species Selection in the Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area, China

by Qiutan Ren, Lingling Zhang, Zhilan Yang, Mengting Zhang, Mengqi Wei, Honglin Zhang, Ang Li, Rong Shi, Peihao Song and Shidong Ge

Forests 2025, 16(3), 536; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030536 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 254

Abstract

As global climate change and urban issues worsen, increasing carbon offsets is crucial, with urban plants playing a key role. However, research on assessing plant carbon sequestration (CSE) capacity at the regional scale, selecting urban plants, and optimizing CSE capacity-based scenarios is still [...] Read more.

As global climate change and urban issues worsen, increasing carbon offsets is crucial, with urban plants playing a key role. However, research on assessing plant carbon sequestration (CSE) capacity at the regional scale, selecting urban plants, and optimizing CSE capacity-based scenarios is still limited. A total of 272 plant species were surveyed in the nine cities of the Zhengzhou Metropolitan Area (ZMA). The i-Tree and biomass models estimated the average carbon storage (CS) density at 9.32 kg C m⁻² and the CSE density at 0.55 kg C y⁻² m⁻² in the ZMA. The highest CS density (13.58 kg C m⁻²) was observed in Pingdingshan, while the lowest CSE density (0.36 kg C y⁻¹ m⁻²) was observed in Xuchang. Hierarchical and cluster analyses identified plant species with balanced CSE capacity, adaptability, and ornamental value, such as Populus tomentosa Carr. and Salix babylonica L., as well as shrubs like Abelia biflora Turcz and Kerria japonica (L.) DC. Vegetation regeneration modeling indicated that CS could increase by 37%–41% along roads, 28%–43% in amenity areas, and 17%–30% near waterfronts over the next 50 years. These findings serve as a reference for urban regeneration and planning aimed at enhancing the carbon reduction potential of urban green spaces (UGS). Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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15 pages, 4415 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interference of Edaphoclimatic Variations on Nondestructive Parameters Measured in Standing Trees

by Carolina Kravetz, Cinthya Bertoldo, Rafael Lorensani and Karina Ferreira

Forests 2025, 16(3), 535; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030535 - 19 Mar 2025

Viewed by 236

Abstract

The diversity of commercial tree planting sites, with their distinct environmental conditions, directly influences tree growth and consequently impacts the wood properties in various ways. However, there is limited research evaluating the impact of these variations in nondestructive testing. Therefore, this study aimed [...] Read more.

The diversity of commercial tree planting sites, with their distinct environmental conditions, directly influences tree growth and consequently impacts the wood properties in various ways. However, there is limited research evaluating the impact of these variations in nondestructive testing. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether edaphoclimatic variations affect parameters obtained through nondestructive tests conducted on standing trees. To this end, 30 specimens were selected from 3 Eucalyptus sp. clones, aged 1, 3, and 4 years, grown in 2 regions, totaling 540 trees. Tree development was monitored quarterly over 12 months. The tests included ultrasound propagation, drilling resistance, and penetration resistance, and the trees were measured for diameter at breast height (DBH) and height. Among the edaphoclimatic factors evaluated, only temperature and soil water storage differed statistically between the two study regions. The higher temperature and lower soil water storage in region 2 promoted tree growth, with these trees showing greater drilling resistance and higher longitudinal wave velocities. In addition, the influence of climatic factors was evidenced by the variation of wave propagation velocity throughout the year. Periods of lower water availability resulted in higher velocities, while periods of greater precipitation were associated with lower velocities. The research results showed that temperature and soil water storage had significant effects on tree growth (DBH and height), as well as ultrasound wave propagation velocity and drilling resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Nondestructive Evaluation of Wood: In-Forest Wood Quality Assessments—2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 5049 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Dynamic Evolution Game of Cooperative Management by Multiple Subjects Under the Forest Ticket System

by Siyu Fei, Xiao Han, Wen Wang and Hongxun Li

Forests 2025, 16(3), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030534 - 18 Mar 2025

Viewed by 208

Abstract

As a kind of proof of the rights and interests of forest resources, the implementation of forest ticket is an important measure for China to revitalise collective forest land resources and promote the transformation of forest resources into economic development advantages, which is [...] Read more.

As a kind of proof of the rights and interests of forest resources, the implementation of forest ticket is an important measure for China to revitalise collective forest land resources and promote the transformation of forest resources into economic development advantages, which is of great significance to the sustainable development of forestry. Based on the dynamic evolutionary game method of multiple subjects, this paper constructs an evolutionary game model of state-owned forest farms, village collective economic organisations, and forest farmers; analyses their strategy choices and the stability of the equilibrium point of the game system; and examines the influence of different parameter values on the model strategy evolution through combination with numerical simulation methods. The results show that the level of knowledge and participation in the forest ticket system significantly influence the optimal equilibrium strategy of each subject of forest cooperative management. The optimal strategy is only when the evolution of the game model is stable at a high level of input, participation, and high willingness to participate. In addition, the forest market environment and the level of inputs from the agents also affect the rate of stabilisation of behavioural strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic and Policy Analysis in Sustainable Forest Management)

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26 pages, 39760 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Impact of Forest Fires on Ecosystem Services: The Case of Greece

by Anastasia Misseyanni, Anastasia Christopoulou, Ioannis Kougkoulos, Emmanuel Vassilakis and Margarita Arianoutsou

Forests 2025, 16(3), 533; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030533 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 966

Abstract

(1) Background: The present study examines the effects of fire on the ecosystem services of forest ecosystems in Greece. Being a Mediterranean country, Greece has been affected by fires of increasing intensity and frequency in recent years; (2) Methods: Information was extracted from [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The present study examines the effects of fire on the ecosystem services of forest ecosystems in Greece. Being a Mediterranean country, Greece has been affected by fires of increasing intensity and frequency in recent years; (2) Methods: Information was extracted from 56 articles published in the period January 1997–March 2024 that were selected after an extensive literature review; (3) Results: An increasing trend in the number of published articles over time was observed. Studies on regulating and maintenance services prevailed. The majority of studies reported on thermo-Mediterranean ecosystems, with Pinus halepensis Mill forests being the most common ecosystems affected by fires. The effects of fire were primarily negative on provisioning and cultural services, as well as on the control of erosion rates, regulation of the hydrologic cycle, atmospheric composition, and climate regulation. Most effects on plant diversity were found to be positive, while positive and neutral effects were also recorded for pollination. The most pronounced negative or positive effects were noted for the first two years after the fire. The spatial mapping of the results showed that the areas most affected by the fires in Greece are Eastern Attica, Euboea, Western Attica, and most regional units of the Peloponnese; (4) Conclusions: In the era of climate change and changing fire regimes in the Mediterranean, there is a need to further research the impact of fire on ecosystem services, as this will help in the better protection and management of the most vulnerable forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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17 pages, 4706 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Microhabitat and Microtopography on the Photosynthetic Characteristics of Typical Karst Forest Plants in Guizhou, China

by Xia Jiang, Hua Zhou, Wenjun Zhao, Yingchun Cui, Yiju Hou, Ting Zhou, Fangcai Hu and Peng Wu

Forests 2025, 16(3), 532; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030532 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 181

Abstract

Twenty-four plants were studied in Guizhou province, China. Based on various microhabitats (soil surface, stone gully, and stone surface) and microtopographies (slope aspect, slope position, and slope degree), the photosynthetic characteristics of the plants were measured, including the net photosynthetic rate (P [...] Read more.

Twenty-four plants were studied in Guizhou province, China. Based on various microhabitats (soil surface, stone gully, and stone surface) and microtopographies (slope aspect, slope position, and slope degree), the photosynthetic characteristics of the plants were measured, including the net photosynthetic rate (P_n), carboxylation efficiency (CE), stomatal conductance (G_s), water use efficiency (WUE), transpiration rate (T_r), intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i), and light use efficiency (LUE). The results demonstrated remarkable variations in the WUE of four types of plants in three microhabitats, showing that stone gully > soil surface > stone surface; there were no remarkable variations in the P_n, T_r, C_i, G_s, CE, and LUE in the three microhabitats. The P_n, T_r, G_s, and LUE of deciduous trees exhibited remarkably higher values compared to the other species studied in the three microhabitats. The evergreen trees’ WUE was much higher than that of the other plants when they were growing on stone surfaces or in a stone gully. There were remarkable variations in the plants’ photosynthetic characteristics dependent on the microtopography. In terms of slope steepness, the P_n, CE, and LUE were the highest in plants on slopes ≤ 5°. Meanwhile, in terms of slope position, the P_n, T_r, CE, and LUE were highest for plants growing in depressions. Concerning slope aspect, the P_n, G_s, CE, and LUE reached the largest values in plants growing on flat land. Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that the P_n, LUE, and WUE were the key photosynthetic parameters reflecting the adaptation of plants to karst environments. Correlation analysis revealed that the P_n and LUE displayed a striking positive correlation with the T_r, C_i, G_s, CE, and WUE. The T_r displayed a striking positive correlation with the C_i, G_s, CE, and LUE, while a striking negative correlation was observed with WUE. This study indicated that evergreen trees exhibit conservative strategies, while deciduous trees use strategies associated with high growth rates. This study provides insights important for the restoration and reconstruction of vegetation in karst regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)

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26 pages, 3278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Leasehold Forestry in Nepal: Enhancing Livelihoods and Preventing Degradation

by Upendra Aryal, Prem Raj Neupane, Bhawana Rijal, Prakash Lamichanne, Ashok Parajuli and Tek Narayan Maraseni

Forests 2025, 16(3), 531; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030531 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 1120

Abstract

Global forests, valued at over USD 150 trillion and supporting the livelihoods of 25% of the world’s population, are threatened by degradation and deforestation, particularly in developing nations. Several forest management systems are in practice, but leasehold forestry (LF) is considered the best [...] Read more.

Global forests, valued at over USD 150 trillion and supporting the livelihoods of 25% of the world’s population, are threatened by degradation and deforestation, particularly in developing nations. Several forest management systems are in practice, but leasehold forestry (LF) is considered the best for achieving the dual goals of preventing degradation and alleviating poverty. Nepal is a pioneer in LF, prioritizing it since 1978. It is now practiced in 39 districts, covering 43,994 hectares of forests. Using DFID’s sustainable livelihood assessment guidelines (a framework never before applied to LF) and incorporating seven additional indicators identified through extensive literature review and expert consultation, as well as semi-structured interviews with key informants (n = 14) and LF users (n = 228), this study quantifies the contribution of LF in Nepal to 5 core assets and 21 livelihood indicators across three categories: “successful”, “moderately successful”, and “not successful”. The results reveal that LF significantly contributes to natural and financial capital, with a lesser impact on social and physical capital. Among the key indicators, LF has the greatest influence on savings and investment, but the least on infrastructure. This study offers targeted lessons and recommendations for less successful LF initiatives, which can help improve their outcomes. These insights are also valuable for policymakers and stakeholders to refine policies and programs and to optimize livelihood and restoration benefits from LF. Additionally, the baseline data provided will serve as a reference for monitoring and evaluating LF initiatives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forestry in the Contemporary Bioeconomy)

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14 pages, 2749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Climate-Suitable Forestation Area Under Species Distribution and Growth Modeling for Larix kaempferi and Chamaecyparis obtusa in the Republic of Korea

by Du-Hee Lee, Hyeon Kwon Ahn, Han Doo Shin, Jeong-Gwan Lee, Chul-Hee Lim and Hyun-Jun Kim

Forests 2025, 16(3), 530; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030530 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 197

Abstract

Climate change has been transforming forest ecosystems globally, affecting the sustainability of conventional forest management practices. This study investigates the suitable forestation area (SFA) for Larix kaempferi and Chamaecyparis obtusa and their growth potential in South Korea under various climate change scenarios. Using [...] Read more.

Climate change has been transforming forest ecosystems globally, affecting the sustainability of conventional forest management practices. This study investigates the suitable forestation area (SFA) for Larix kaempferi and Chamaecyparis obtusa and their growth potential in South Korea under various climate change scenarios. Using species distribution models (SDMs) based on machine learning ensembles, we analyzed potential spatial shifts in the climatic suitability for these species. Growth models based on field data were also developed to evaluate growth variation between Köppen–Geiger climatic zones. The results indicate a substantial reduction in the SFA for L. kaempferi, with its habitat range confined to high-altitude regions due to rising temperatures. In contrast, the forestation potential for C. obtusa is predicted to expand nationwide, particularly in inland areas, under climate change scenarios. However, extreme increases in temperature and atmospheric CO₂ concentrations exceeding 600 ppm may inhibit growth, highlighting the need for the development of adaptive management strategies. This study provides useful information for climate-resilient forestation planning by combining growth-weighted suitability indices with projected habitat shifts. These findings emphasize the importance of prioritizing high-altitude conservation zones for L. kaempferi and employing C. obtusa for inland afforestation as a means to ensure sustainable forest management and carbon neutrality objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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18 pages, 10759 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Magnitude, Seasonality, and Drivers of Nocturnal Water Use in Three Subtropical and Tropical Plantations in Southern China

by Zhanpeng Sun, Hongfeng Xu, Side Wang, Haohui Lin, Qinghai Song, Yun Li, Dengsheng Lu and Yaoliang Chen

Forests 2025, 16(3), 529; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030529 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 157

Abstract

Nocturnal water consumption (NWC), known as including stem refilling (SR) and nocturnal transpiration (NT), has been documented in many plant species, but we do not yet have a clear understanding of species differences and the biotic and abiotic regulation of this phenomenon, especially [...] Read more.

Nocturnal water consumption (NWC), known as including stem refilling (SR) and nocturnal transpiration (NT), has been documented in many plant species, but we do not yet have a clear understanding of species differences and the biotic and abiotic regulation of this phenomenon, especially for subtropical and tropical plantations. In this study, we examine the magnitude, seasonality, and biotic and abiotic regulation of NWC, SR, and NT in three widely planted subtropical and tropical species, Eucalyptus spp., Hevea brasiliensis, and Castanopsis hystrix, through the measured sap and meteorological variables. Stand-level NWC and SR differ significantly among the three plantations, where the mean daily NWC and SR of Eucalyptus spp. (2022–2023), Hevea brasiliensis (2014), and Castanopsis hystrix (2022–2023) are 0.08 mm and 0.05 mm, 0.36 mm and 0.28 mm, and 0.14 mm and 0.12 mm, respectively. Their stand-level NT values are 0.03 mm, 0.08 mm, and 0.02 mm, respectively. Additionally, distinct differences in the seasonality of NWC, SR, and NT are observed among the three plantations, with higher values during spring and autumn and lower values in summer and winter. SR is identified as the predominant role in NWC for all the plantations. VPD is identified as the primary meteorological factor driving NWC, SR, and NR in Eucalyptus spp. and Hevea brasiliensis plantations, while no prominent abiotic variables show the main driver in Castanopsis hystrix. Our findings reveal important implications for the NWC of tropical plantations related to soil–plant–atmosphere equilibrium and hydrology modeling. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrologic and Carbon Balance Responses of Forests Resulting from Climate Change)

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23 pages, 9840 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Variation Patterns and Climate-Influencing Factors Affecting Maximum Light Use Efficiency in Terrestrial Ecosystem Vegetation

by Duan Huang, Yue He, Shilin Zou, Yuejun Song and Hong Chi

Forests 2025, 16(3), 528; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030528 - 17 Mar 2025

Viewed by 242

Abstract

Accurately understanding the changes in global light-response parameters (i.e., maximum light use efficiency, LUEmax) is essential for improving the simulation of terrestrial ecosystem’s photosynthetic carbon cycling under climate change, but a comprehensive understanding and assessments are still lacking. In this study, LUEmax was [...] Read more.

Accurately understanding the changes in global light-response parameters (i.e., maximum light use efficiency, LUEmax) is essential for improving the simulation of terrestrial ecosystem’s photosynthetic carbon cycling under climate change, but a comprehensive understanding and assessments are still lacking. In this study, LUEmax was quantified using data from 23 global flux stations, and the change patterns in LUEmax across various vegetation types and climate zones were analyzed. The extent of significant increases or decreases in LUEmax during different phenological stages of vegetation growth was evaluated using trend analysis methods. The contribution rates of environmental factors were determined using the Geodetector method. The results show that the LUEmax values of the same vegetation type varied across different climate types. More variable climates (e.g., polar and alpine climates) are associated with more significant fluctuations in LUEmax. Conversely, more stable climates (e.g., temperate climates) tend to show more consistent LUEmax values. Within the same climate type, evergreen needleleaf forests (ENF) and deciduous broadleaf forests (DBF) generally exhibited higher LUEmax values in temperate and continental climates, whereas the LUEmax values of wetlands (WET) were relatively high in polar and alpine climates. The mechanisms driving variations in LUEmax across different vegetation types exhibited significant disparities under diverse environmental conditions. For ENF and DBF, LUEmax is predominantly influenced by temperature and radiation. In contrast, the LUEmax of GRA, WET, and croplands is more closely associated with vegetation indices and temperature factors. The findings of this study play an important role in advancing the theoretical development of gross primary productivity (GPP) models and enhancing the accuracy of carbon sequestration simulations in terrestrial ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Climate Variation & Carbon and Nitrogen Cycling in Forests)

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14 pages, 10909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Backpack LiDAR Scan Routes on Diameter at Breast Height Estimation in Forests

by Longwei Li, Linjia Wei, Nan Li, Shijun Zhang, Mengyi Hu and Jing Ma

Forests 2025, 16(3), 527; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030527 - 16 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 199

Abstract

Forest resource surveys are of vital importance for grasping the current status of forest resources, formulating management strategies, and evaluating ecosystem functions. Traditional manual measurement methods have numerous limitations in complex forest environments. The emergence of LiDAR technology has provided a new approach. [...] Read more.

Forest resource surveys are of vital importance for grasping the current status of forest resources, formulating management strategies, and evaluating ecosystem functions. Traditional manual measurement methods have numerous limitations in complex forest environments. The emergence of LiDAR technology has provided a new approach. Backpack LiDAR has been increasingly applied due to its portability and flexibility. However, there is a lack of comprehensive research on the influence of different scanning routes on data quality and analysis results. In this study, forest plots of four tree species, namely Carya cathayensis, Cinnamomum camphora, Koelreuteria bipinnata, and Quercus acutissima in Chuzhou City, Anhui Province, were selected as the research objects. Six scanning routes were designed to collect point cloud data using backpack LiDAR. After preprocessing, including denoising and ground point classification, diameter at breast height (DBH) fitting and accuracy evaluation were carried out. The results indicated that the individual tree recognition rates of C. cathayensis, C. camphora, and K. bipinnata reached 100%, while that of Q. acutissima was between 64.71% and 78.07% and was significantly affected by the scanning route. The DBH fitting accuracy of each tree species varied among different routes. For example, C. cathayensis had high accuracy in routes 1 and 6, and C. camphora had high accuracy in routes 1 and 3. Tree species characteristics, scanning routes, and data processing methods jointly affected the DBH fitting accuracy. This study provides a basis for the application of backpack LiDAR in forest resource surveys. Although backpack LiDAR has advantages, it is still necessary to optimize data acquisition schemes targeting tree species characteristics and improve point cloud data processing algorithms to promote its in-depth application in the forestry field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of LiDAR in Forestry: Challenges, Opportunities and the Future)

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14 pages, 3140 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Biological Durability and Fire Safety in Wood Modified with Maleic Anhydride and Sodium Hypophosphite

by Injeong Kim, Lone Ross, Gry Alfredsen, Olov Karlsson, Elif Kaynak, Oisik Das, Dennis Jones, George I. Mantanis and Dick Sandberg

Forests 2025, 16(3), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030526 - 16 Mar 2025

Viewed by 583

Abstract

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood was modified using maleic anhydride (MA) and sodium hypophosphite (SHP) to improve its durability against wood-deteriorating fungi, mechanical strength, and fire retardancy (thermal stability). The modification significantly reduced mass loss caused by wood-decaying fungi (Trametes [...] Read more.

Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) sapwood was modified using maleic anhydride (MA) and sodium hypophosphite (SHP) to improve its durability against wood-deteriorating fungi, mechanical strength, and fire retardancy (thermal stability). The modification significantly reduced mass loss caused by wood-decaying fungi (Trametes versicolor, Rhodonia placenta, and soft rot fungi) due to the formation of cross-links between wood, MA, and SHP, which limited the moisture uptake and altered the chemical structure of wood. On the other hand, the modification did not provide improved resistance to fungi growth on the wood surface, which indicated that the modification had little impact on the accessibility of nutrients on the surface. A bending test showed that the modulus of elasticity (MOE) was not affected by the treatment, whilst the modulus of rupture (MOR) decreased to half the value of untreated wood. Thermal resistance was improved, as demonstrated by micro-scale combustion calorimeter testing, where the total heat release was halved, and the residue percentage nearly doubled. These results indicate that phosphonate protects the modified wood via the formation of a protective char layer on the surface and the formation of radical moieties. Based on the results, wood modified with MA and SHP shows potential for possible use in outdoor, non-loadbearing structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformation of Wood After Processing and Modification)

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18 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Acid Rain and Understory Vegetation Removal on the Biological Activity of the Soils of the Cinnamomum camphora (Linn) Presl Plantation

by Zaihua He, Yini Liu, Yonghui Lin, Xiangshi Kong, Hong Lin and Xingbing He

Forests 2025, 16(3), 525; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16030525 - 16 Mar 2025

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Abstract

Acid rain and understory vegetation removal are critical drivers altering soil ecosystem alterations. However, the mechanisms by which these factors influence soil moisture dynamics, nutrient availability, and microbially mediated enzyme activities remain insufficiently elucidated. This study investigated the impacts of simulated acid rain [...] Read more.

Acid rain and understory vegetation removal are critical drivers altering soil ecosystem alterations. However, the mechanisms by which these factors influence soil moisture dynamics, nutrient availability, and microbially mediated enzyme activities remain insufficiently elucidated. This study investigated the impacts of simulated acid rain and understory vegetation removal on soil properties, enzyme activities, and microbial community in a subtropical Cinnamomum camphor (Linn) Presl plantation. The results indicated that acid rain and understory vegetation removal significantly decreased the soil organic carbon (SOC) while concurrently elevating the C-acquiring enzyme activities and microbial C limitation. Understory vegetation removal markedly reduced the soil moisture, nutrient availability, and N- and P-acquiring enzyme activities. Additionally, acid rain increased the bacterial diversity, but the understory vegetation removal increased the fungal diversity. Moreover, both acid rain and understory vegetation removal enhanced the bacterial community deterministic processes and destabilized the community by shifting generalists toward specialists, but had no significant effect on the fungal community structure. Partial least squares path modeling revealed that the bacterial stability loss intensified the C limitation, while the fungal stability regulated the P limitation. Collectively, the findings highlighted the critical role of understory vegetation in buffering the soil microclimate and nutrient cycling, and demonstrated that bacterial communities are more responsive to acid rain and understory vegetation removal than fungal communities. This study provides insights into the mechanisms by which anthropogenic disturbances alter soil ecological functions in subtropical plantations, emphasizing the need for integrated forest management strategies to conserve and manage soil ecosystems in subtropical plantations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue How Does Forest Management Affect Soil Dynamics?)

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Forests, Volume 16, Issue 3 (March 2025) – 175 articles

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