Journal of Xenobiotics

31 pages, 3062 KB

Open AccessReview

Separation and Detection of Microplastics in Human Exposure Pathways: Challenges, Analytical Techniques, and Emerging Solutions

by Asim Laeeq Khan and Asad A. Zaidi

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050154 - 23 Sep 2025

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as widespread environmental contaminants, with confirmed presence in human tissues and biological fluids through ingestion, inhalation, and direct systemic exposure. Their potential impacts on human health have become an important subject of scientific investigation. The detection and quantification [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as widespread environmental contaminants, with confirmed presence in human tissues and biological fluids through ingestion, inhalation, and direct systemic exposure. Their potential impacts on human health have become an important subject of scientific investigation. The detection and quantification of MPs, particularly nanoplastics, in complex biological matrices remain challenging because of their low concentrations, diverse physicochemical properties, and interference from organic and inorganic matter. This review presents a critical assessment of current methods for the separation and detection of MPs from human-relevant samples. It examines pre-treatment, separation, and analytical approaches including physical filtration, density-based separation, chemical and enzymatic digestion, vibrational spectroscopy, thermal analysis, and electron microscopy, highlighting their principles, advantages, and limitations. Key challenges such as low sample throughput, absence of standardized procedures, and the difficulty of nanoplastic detection are identified as major barriers to accurate exposure assessment and risk evaluation. Recent advances, including functionalized adsorbents, improved anti-fouling membranes, integrated microfluidic systems, and artificial intelligence-assisted spectral analysis, are discussed for their potential to provide sensitive, scalable, and standardized analytical workflows. By integrating current challenges with recent innovations, this review aims to guide multidisciplinary research toward the development of reliable and reproducible detection strategies that can support MPs exposure assessment and inform evidence-based health policies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in the Environment: Intake Through the Food Chain and Cosmeceuticals, Human Exposure, and Health Concerns)

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22 pages, 3111 KB

Open AccessArticle

Posidonia oceanica Extract Inhibits VEGF-Induced Angiogenic and Oxidative Responses in Human Endothelial Colony-Forming Cells

by Francesca Margheri, Cecilia Anceschi, Elena Frediani, Alessandra Marzoppi, Marzia Vasarri, Donatella Degl’Innocenti, Emanuela Barletta, Anna Laurenzana and Anastasia Chillà

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050153 - 17 Sep 2025

Viewed by 184

Abstract

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature, is essential for physiological processes such as development and wound healing, but its dysregulation contributes to a range of pathological conditions including cancer, diabetic retinopathy, and chronic inflammation. In recent years, marine-derived compounds [...] Read more.

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vasculature, is essential for physiological processes such as development and wound healing, but its dysregulation contributes to a range of pathological conditions including cancer, diabetic retinopathy, and chronic inflammation. In recent years, marine-derived compounds have emerged as promising multitarget agents with anti-angiogenic potential. Posidonia oceanica, a Mediterranean seagrass traditionally used in folk medicine, is increasingly recognized for its pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-invasive activities. This study investigated the effects of a hydroethanolic extract from P. oceanica leaves (POE) on human Endothelial Colony-Forming Cells (ECFCs), a subpopulation of endothelial progenitor cells with high proliferative and vessel-forming capacity, and a relevant model for studying pathological angiogenesis. ECFCs were treated with POE (4–8 µg/mL), and cell viability, morphology, migration, invasion, tube formation, oxidative stress, and activation markers were evaluated. POE did not alter ECFC morphology or viability, as confirmed by Trypan Blue and MTT assays. However, functional assays revealed that POE significantly impaired ECFC migration, invasion, and in vitro angiogenesis in a dose-dependent manner. Under VEGF (Vascular endothelial growth factor) stimulation, POE reduced intracellular ROS accumulation and downregulated key redox-regulating genes (hTRX1, hTRX2, PRDX2, AKR1C1, AKR1B10). Western blot analysis showed that POE inhibited VEGF-induced phosphorylation of KDR, mTOR and p-ERK, while p-AKT remained elevated, indicating selective disruption of VEGF downstream signaling. Furthermore, POE reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory and pro-coagulant markers (VCAM-1, ICAM-1, TF) and partially reversed TNF-α–induced endothelial activation. These findings suggest that POE exerts anti-angiogenic effects through a multitargeted mechanism, supporting its potential as a natural therapeutic agent for diseases characterized by aberrant angiogenesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Natural Products/Herbal Medicines)

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17 pages, 808 KB

Open AccessArticle

Age-Stratified Spatial Radiological Risk Assessment of ²²⁶Ra ²³²Th and ⁴⁰K in Water Surrounding the Geita Gold Mine in Tanzania

by Jerome M. Mwimanzi, Nils H. Haneklaus, Farida Lolila, Janeth J. Marwa, Mwemezi J. Rwiza and Kelvin M. Mtei

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050152 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 269

Abstract

Long-term ingestion of water contaminated with naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) may pose health risks. Water around the Geita Gold Mine in Tanzania was assessed by high-purity germanium gamma spectrometry to quantify the activity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K, [...] Read more.

Long-term ingestion of water contaminated with naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) may pose health risks. Water around the Geita Gold Mine in Tanzania was assessed by high-purity germanium gamma spectrometry to quantify the activity concentrations of ²²⁶Ra, ²³²Th, and ⁴⁰K, and computed age-stratified ingestion doses and risk indices were determined. The average activity concentrations were 57 mBq L⁻¹ for ²²⁶Ra and 5026 mBq L⁻¹ for ⁴⁰K, while the activity concentrations of ²³²Th were below the detection limit in all samples. The estimated adult fatal cancer risk ranged from 0.9 × 10⁻⁶ to 3.1 × 10⁻⁶ (mean 2.0 × 10⁻⁶). The excess lifetime hereditary effect ranged from 2.0 × 10⁻⁶ to 7.3 × 10⁻⁶ for males (average 4.5 × 10⁻⁶ ± 1.5 × 10⁻⁶) and 2.1 × 10⁻⁶ to 7.7 × 10⁻⁶ for females (average 4.8 × 10⁻⁶ ± 1.6 × 10⁻⁶). One-way ANOVA and Pearson correlations indicated significant spatial variation in activities and indices across sites and age groups. Under current conditions, waters appear to be radiologically safe. However, mine-adjacent hotspots warrant targeted surveillance. The obtained results provide a baseline for sound monitoring approaches at the Geita Gold Mine and other mines showing similar activity profiles. Full article

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36 pages, 1134 KB

Open AccessReview

Innovative Analytical Approaches for Food Pesticide Residue Detection: Towards One Health-Oriented Risk Monitoring

by Alexandra Andreea Botnaru, Ancuta Lupu, Paula Cristina Morariu, Alin Horatiu Nedelcu, Branco Adrian Morariu, Maria Luisa Di Gioia, Vasile Valeriu Lupu, Oana Maria Dragostin, Ioana-Cezara Caba, Emil Anton, Madalina Vieriu and Ionela Daniela Morariu

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050151 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 414

Abstract

The increasing use of pesticides in agricultural products raises concerns over food safety. Furthermore, uncontrolled pesticide usage on food products can lead to residual levels that exceed the maximum residue limits (MRLs) and are potentially harmful to human health. Long-term consumption of food [...] Read more.

The increasing use of pesticides in agricultural products raises concerns over food safety. Furthermore, uncontrolled pesticide usage on food products can lead to residual levels that exceed the maximum residue limits (MRLs) and are potentially harmful to human health. Long-term consumption of food contaminated with pesticides can contribute to the buildup of toxic substances in the body, which has negative health effects. Advanced analytical techniques are essential to ensure the accurate and effective monitoring of pesticide residues. To ensure adherence to legal requirements, it is essential to employ rapid and accurate methods for detecting these contaminants. This review outlines current advancements (2020–2025) in the assessment of pesticide residues in diverse food matrices, including sample preparation procedures and detection methods. This review provides a standardized comparative analysis of analytical methods for detecting pesticide residues, emphasizing their advantages and limitations, sensitivity, costs, and applicability to complex food matrices, while evaluating its findings through the One Health approach, linking residue evaluation to cumulative exposure and regulatory standards. This study provides practical guidelines for laboratories and regulators while delineating research requirements for more environmentally friendly, rapid, and sensitive residue analysis in accordance with One Health-oriented risk assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)

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21 pages, 1542 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Different Interventions Aimed at Reducing Dermal and Internal Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Exposure Among Firefighters

by Anne Thoustrup Saber, Marie Frederiksen, Simon Pelle Jensen, Vivi Kofoed-Sørensen, Per Axel Clausen, Anja Julie Huusom, Tanja Carøe, Niels Ebbehøj, Maria Helena Guerra Andersen and Ulla Vogel

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050150 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 318

Abstract

Firefighters are inherently exposed to soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at work. In this repeated measures study, we assessed if three different interventions reduced PAH exposure. For each sub-study, the firefighters participated in two sampling periods and thereby served as their own [...] Read more.

Firefighters are inherently exposed to soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) at work. In this repeated measures study, we assessed if three different interventions reduced PAH exposure. For each sub-study, the firefighters participated in two sampling periods and thereby served as their own controls. The first period served as baseline, while the second period was the intervention period where the participants received education on health effects of soot, information on own PAH exposure, and participated in one of three interventions: (1) sauna after fire calls, (2) use of fire suits with improved barrier, and (3) showering after every fire call. We recruited 26 firefighters from three different fire stations. Dermal wipes were assessed for 16 PAHs and spot urine for eight hydroxylated metabolites. Pre-shift PAH burden was significantly reduced compared to our previous biomonitoring study. Post-shift levels of two PAH metabolites (1-hydroxypyrene and 1-hydroxyfluorene) were increased for firefighters after a work shift without fire calls compared to pre-shift. The sauna intervention significantly reduced the levels of all the measured urinary PAH metabolites while the dermal PAH exposure remained unaffected. The fire suit intervention yielded more inconsistent results. While standard shower reduced dermal PAH levels, no additional effects were observed for the shower intervention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Toxicology and Human Health—2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 1379 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multisampling Strategies for Determining Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) in the Marine Environment

by Enrique J. Díaz-Montaña and Sofía Domínguez-Gil

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050149 - 15 Sep 2025

Viewed by 282

Abstract

The determination of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in the marine environment is performed through many different sampling approaches. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to compare different existing sampling strategies: biofilm mesocosms, considering micro- and macrofouling; passive sampling; and grab [...] Read more.

The determination of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) in the marine environment is performed through many different sampling approaches. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to compare different existing sampling strategies: biofilm mesocosms, considering micro- and macrofouling; passive sampling; and grab marine water. The sampling of grab water was performed considering spatial and time-line variations. The spatial analysis of CECs showed that three sun agents and caffeine represent the biggest proportion of CECs in the Malaga Mediterranean coastal area, ranging from 0.391 to 0.495 ng/L. The time-line analysis did not show any upward or downward trend in CEC concentration. The mesocosm study comprised a separate evaluation of micro- and macrofouling that showed similar profiles, in which the sun agents presented the highest concentrations. While certain compounds were detected at comparable levels in both fouling types, such as clotrimazole around 0.001 ng/L, others exhibited significant differences in concentration, like caffeine. The passive sampling was also performed, obtaining similar results to those observed in the biofilm mesocosm macrofouling. Finally, all the obtained results from the different samplings were statistically compared, showing that passive sampling presented greater similarities with macrofouling and that there are significant differences between the sampling approach employed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Challenges in the Monitoring, Risk Assessment and Management of Pesticides and Biocides in the “One Health Era”)

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19 pages, 1414 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

A Systematic Review of Estrogens as Emerging Contaminants in Water: A Global Overview Study from the One Health Perspective

by Rhitor Lorca da Silva, Marco Antonio Lima e Silva, Tiago Porfírio Teixeira, Thaís Soares Farnesi de Assunção, Paula Pinheiro Teixeira, Wagner Antonio Tamagno, Thiago Lopes Rocha, Julio Cesar de Souza Inácio Gonçalves and Matheus Marcon

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050148 - 13 Sep 2025

Viewed by 722

Abstract

The widespread presence of estrogens in aquatic environments represents a One Health concern, as it simultaneously threatens environmental integrity, wildlife health, and human well-being. These compounds, widely used in human and veterinary medicine, are excreted in partially or unmetabolized forms and persist in [...] Read more.

The widespread presence of estrogens in aquatic environments represents a One Health concern, as it simultaneously threatens environmental integrity, wildlife health, and human well-being. These compounds, widely used in human and veterinary medicine, are excreted in partially or unmetabolized forms and persist in the environment due to the inefficiency of conventional water treatment systems in removing them. This systematic review provides a global overview of the occurrence of estrogens in water resources. We synthesized data on study characteristics, estrogen compounds detected, their concentrations, types of water bodies, and geographic locations. In total, 39 estrogens, including natural, synthetic, and metabolite forms, were reported at concentrations ranging from 0.002 to 10,380,000.0 ng/L across 40 water body types in 59 countries on all continents. The most frequently detected compounds were estrone, estradiol, and ethinylestradiol. Estrogens were predominantly identified in wastewater treatment plant effluents, rivers, lakes, surface waters, and even drinking water sources. These findings underscore the estrogen contamination and its potential to disrupt endocrine functions across species, posing serious implications for ecosystems. Within the One Health framework, this review highlights the urgent need for integrated strategies to improve water quality monitoring, develop advanced treatment technologies, and update regulatory standards to address the multifaceted risks posed by estrogenic contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Chemicals)

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26 pages, 2774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Silver Nanoparticles on Plant Growth and Cytogenotoxicity Using Triticum and Allium Bioassays

by Simona Elena Pisculungeanu, Liliana Cristina Soare, Oana Alexandra Luțu, Alina Păunescu, Georgiana Cîrstea, Aurelian Denis Negrea, Codruța Mihaela Dobrescu and Nicoleta Anca Ionescu (Șuțan)

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050147 - 12 Sep 2025

Viewed by 310

Abstract

The production and extensive use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in various fields necessitate thorough testing, not only in terms of their potential applications but also regarding the effects they induce on various organisms. In addition, nanoparticles generated from various anthropogenic activities, which reach [...] Read more.

The production and extensive use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in various fields necessitate thorough testing, not only in terms of their potential applications but also regarding the effects they induce on various organisms. In addition, nanoparticles generated from various anthropogenic activities, which reach or are formed in the atmosphere, have a significant impact on the health of humans and other living organisms. Recent research indicates that the effects produced by these nanoparticles are dependent on their size and applied dose. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the physiological, biochemical and cytogenotoxic effects induced by different doses of AgNPs compared to positive and negative controls in Triticum aestivum L. and Allium cepa L. A significant stimulatory effect of the treatment performed with the solution of AgNPs with a size of 20 nm, at the lowest concentration (0.02 µg mL⁻¹), in the two tested species, was obtained. The growth and weight of the seedling were significantly increased, and the mitotic index was also elevated. Additionally, this treatment variant showed the lowest percentage of chromosomal aberrations. No significant differences were observed in cell viability, total polyphenol content, proline levels, or assimilatory pigment concentrations compared to the control. Our findings show that AgNPs may exert stimulatory effects, whether significant or not, on certain physiological and biochemical parameters. However, they also interfere with cell cycle regulation and genomic stability, raising concerns regarding their environmental and biological safety. The Allium test proved to be an effective method for detecting nanoparticle-induced genotoxicity and can be recommended as a preliminary screening assay in nanoparticle safety evaluations. Full article

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42 pages, 5242 KB

Open AccessReview

The Mechanisms of Lead Toxicity in Living Organisms

by Anastasiia Generalova, Slavena Davidova and Galina Satchanska

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050146 - 11 Sep 2025

Viewed by 627

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is a non-essential, toxic heavy metal with no known biological function that has caused widespread environmental contamination throughout human history. Pb toxicity represents one of the most persistent environmental health challenges, with no safe exposure threshold identified. The metal demonstrates remarkable [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) is a non-essential, toxic heavy metal with no known biological function that has caused widespread environmental contamination throughout human history. Pb toxicity represents one of the most persistent environmental health challenges, with no safe exposure threshold identified. The metal demonstrates remarkable persistence in biological systems, with approximately 90% of it stored in bone tissue for decades, mimicking calcium due to its similar ionic properties. Contemporary contamination primarily stems from mining activities, battery manufacturing, electronic waste recycling, and deteriorating infrastructure. Pb enters organisms through multiple pathways and causes severe health impacts across all biological systems, with particularly devastating neurodevelopmental and bone effects in children and cardiovascular and reproductive consequences in adults. On a molecular level, Pb disrupts cellular processes through ion mimicry, replacing essential metals in enzymes and proteins and leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and epigenetic modifications. This review examines the sources of Pb pollution and its toxicological impacts on bacteria, fungi, plants, animals, and humans. It explores the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects, including neuroinflammation, genotoxicity, and cell death pathways. The paper considers current approaches for Pb removal from contaminated environments and therapeutic interventions for Pb poisoning. Full article

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14 pages, 1195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Azithromycin on the Functioning of the Food Web in Freshwater Plankton

by Anita Galir, Dubravka Špoljarić Maronić, Filip Stević, Tanja Žuna Pfeiffer, Fran Prašnikar, Nikolina Bek, Eva Penava and Petra Križevac

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050145 - 10 Sep 2025

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Abstract

High doses of the antibiotic azithromycin in freshwater environments can impact planktonic organisms at both the individual and community levels, influencing interactions at the base of the food web. This study investigated the effects of azithromycin on the natural rotifer community feeding on [...] Read more.

High doses of the antibiotic azithromycin in freshwater environments can impact planktonic organisms at both the individual and community levels, influencing interactions at the base of the food web. This study investigated the effects of azithromycin on the natural rotifer community feeding on phytoplankton from a eutrophic water body and its potential impacts on rotifer fitness (impaired mastax movement: slow, irregular or reduced frequency), grazing and mortality following acute exposure. The natural plankton community was exposed to three azithromycin concentrations based on the EC₅₀ value (EC₅₀, 1/2 EC₅₀ and 1/3 EC₅₀) and assessed at different exposure times (24, 48 and 72 h) in the microcosm experiments. The results showed that all azithromycin concentrations reduced the fitness of the rotifers, as indicated by impaired mastax movement and/or slow, irregular or reduced movement frequency. Impairment of mastax movement altered rotifer grazing and the abundance of phytoplankton. The rotifers in the control group suppressed abundant phytoplankton growth, suggesting that azithromycin impairs interspecific interactions between plankton species. Rotifer mortality occurred at 48 h after azithromycin exposure in all treated samples. These findings show that the effects of azithromycin can be observed at different trophic levels, affecting both phytoplankton and zooplankton through altered biotic interactions and suppressed grazing. Full article

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30 pages, 1422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adverse Event Signals Associated with Beta-Lactamase Inhibitors: Disproportionality Analysis of USFDA Adverse Event Reporting System

by Kannan Sridharan and Gowri Sivaramakrishnan

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050144 - 9 Sep 2025

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Abstract

Background: Beta-lactamase inhibitors (BLIs) are widely used with beta-lactam antibiotics to combat resistant infections, yet their safety profiles, especially for newer agents, remain underexplored. This study aimed to identify potential adverse event (AE) signals associated with BLIs using the USFDA Adverse Event Reporting [...] Read more.

Background: Beta-lactamase inhibitors (BLIs) are widely used with beta-lactam antibiotics to combat resistant infections, yet their safety profiles, especially for newer agents, remain underexplored. This study aimed to identify potential adverse event (AE) signals associated with BLIs using the USFDA Adverse Event Reporting System (USFDA AERS). Methods: The USFDA AERS was queried for AE reports involving FDA-approved BLIs from March 2004 to March 2024. After removing duplicates, only reports with BLIs listed as primary suspects were included. Disproportionality analysis was conducted using frequentist and Bayesian approaches, with statistical significance assessed by chi-square testing. Results: A total of 12,456 unique reports were analyzed. Common AEs across BLIs included hematologic disorders, hypersensitivity reactions, emergent infections, organ dysfunction, and neurological complications. Signal detection revealed specific associations: septic shock and respiratory failure with avibactam; lymphadenopathy and congenital anomalies with clavulanic acid; antimicrobial resistance and epilepsy with relebactam; disseminated intravascular coagulation and cardiac arrest with sulbactam; and agranulocytosis and conduction abnormalities with tazobactam. For vaborbactam, no distinct AE signals were identified apart from off-label use. Mortality was significantly more frequent with avibactam and relebactam (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: This analysis highlights a spectrum of AE signals with BLIs, including unexpected associations warranting further investigation. While some events may reflect comorbidities or concomitant therapies, these findings underscore the importance of continued pharmacovigilance and targeted clinical studies to clarify causality and ensure the safe use of BLIs in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drug Therapeutics)

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12 pages, 2209 KB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus in Seawater of Taizhou Bay, China

by Guanghua Xia, Chunling Han, Manting Chen, Guanjie Wang, Kejia Lu, Jianqiang Zhu and Jiachao Yao

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050143 - 9 Sep 2025

Viewed by 466

Abstract

Heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus play a significant role in the marine ecosystem and human health. In this work, the concentrations of heavy metals, inorganic nitrogen, and phosphorus were determined to assess the distribution characteristics, risk levels, and possible sources in seawater from [...] Read more.

Heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus play a significant role in the marine ecosystem and human health. In this work, the concentrations of heavy metals, inorganic nitrogen, and phosphorus were determined to assess the distribution characteristics, risk levels, and possible sources in seawater from Taizhou Bay. The concentration ranges of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Hg, As, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate were 1.87–3.65 μg/L, 0.10–0.95 μg/L, 2.98–16.80 μg/L, 0.07–0.38 μg/L, 0.011–0.043 μg/L, 0.93–2.06 μg/L, 0.011–0.608 mg-N/L, 0.012–0.722 mg-N/L, 0.001–0.022 mg-N/L, and 0.004–0.044 mg-P/L, respectively. The ecological risks were evaluated by the single factor index, Nemerow pollution index, and risk quotient. The results indicated that Taizhou Bay is not currently facing ecological risk related to heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus, but the RQ values emphasized the urgency of strengthening continuous monitoring of As, Cu, and Zn. The results of Pearson’s correlation indicated that salinity and chemical oxygen demand had a significant impact on nitrogen and phosphorus but little impact on heavy metals. Principal component analysis was then applied to analyze the probable origins of heavy metals and inorganic pollutants, suggesting that these pollutants were mainly derived from human activities along the bay. Full article

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16 pages, 1421 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sub-Toxic Exposure to DEPs and PM_2.5 Impairs Dendritic Cell Function Through Intracellular Particle Accumulation

by Yuki Nakahira, Daisuke Otomo, Tomoaki Okuda and Akira Onodera

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050142 - 8 Sep 2025

Viewed by 533

Abstract

Air pollution, particularly exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), poses a substantial risk to human health. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs), a major constituent of PM_2.5, contain chemically reactive components that promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune dysfunction. Although the [...] Read more.

Air pollution, particularly exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), poses a substantial risk to human health. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs), a major constituent of PM_2.5, contain chemically reactive components that promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune dysfunction. Although the acute toxicity of PM_2.5 and DEPs has been extensively studied, their effects under “sub-toxic” conditions—defined here as exposures that do not cause measurable cytotoxicity based on LDH release but still impair cellular function—remain poorly understood. This study investigated the impact of low-toxicity exposure to DEPs and PM_2.5 on dendritic cell (DC) function using the human plasmacytoid DC-like cell line PMDC05. Cells exposed to DEPs or PM_2.5 exhibited minimal cytotoxicity but accumulated intracellular particles, resulting in impaired endocytosis, phagocytosis, and interferon gene expression upon TLR7 stimulation. These functional impairments were not observed following TLR4 stimulation, suggesting a selective disruption of endolysosomal signalling. The findings demonstrate that DEPs and PM_2.5 can impair innate immune responses without inducing cell death, likely through lysosomal overload and altered intracellular trafficking. This study identifies a non-cytotoxic pathway through which particulate air pollution may compromise antiviral immunity, thereby increasing susceptibility to infection in polluted environments. Strategies aimed at preserving lysosomal integrity and dendritic cell function may help mitigate the immunotoxic effects of airborne particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Environmental Nanotoxicology—from Traditional Standard Toxicity Tests to the Application of New Approach Methodologies)

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21 pages, 1864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Biomarker Assessment of Pesticide Exposure and Telomere Attrition in Mexican Children from Agricultural Communities

by Miguel Alfonso Ruiz-Arias, Yael Yvette Bernal-Hernández, Irma Martha Medina-Díaz, José Francisco Herrera-Moreno, Briscia Socorro Barrón-Vivanco, Francisco Alberto Verdín-Betancourt, Cyndia Azucena González-Arias, Eugenia Flores-Alfaro, Kenneth S. Ramos, Patricia Ostrosky-Wegman and Aurora Elizabeth Rojas-García

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050141 - 4 Sep 2025

Viewed by 508

Abstract

Children are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of pesticides due to physiological factors and behavioral habits. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of pesticide exposure on telomere length (TL) and the enzymatic activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and β-glucuronidase (β-Glu) [...] Read more.

Children are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of pesticides due to physiological factors and behavioral habits. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of pesticide exposure on telomere length (TL) and the enzymatic activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and β-glucuronidase (β-Glu) in children ages 6 to 12 from an agricultural area in Mexico. A cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytical study was conducted involving 471 children. Blood samples were collected to assess TL through qPCR and enzymatic activity using established protocols. A pesticide exposure index (PEI) was developed incorporating biomarker levels, urinary dialkylphosphates (DAP), and proximity to farmland. No significant differences were observed in AChE activity across communities; however, BuChE activity was significantly higher in agricultural communities, while β-Glu activity varied among communities. Notably, children aged 6 in agricultural areas showed TL values similar to 12-year-old children in the reference community. Adjusted regression models revealed significantly shorter TL in children from agricultural communities and in children with moderate to high PEI. The findings indicate that chronic pesticide exposure was associated with telomere shortening in children, suggesting accelerated biological aging and potential genomic instability during critical developmental periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Nutrition and the Environment on Human Metabolism)

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28 pages, 2367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Arginine-Derived Cationic Surfactants Containing Phenylalanine and Tryptophan: Evaluation of Antifungal Activity, Biofilm Eradication, Cytotoxicity, and Ecotoxicity

by M. Teresa García, M. Carmen Morán, Ramon Pons, Zakaria Hafidi, Elena Bautista, Sergio Vazquez and Lourdes Pérez

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050140 - 3 Sep 2025

Viewed by 701

Abstract

Due to the growing emergence of bacterial and fungal resistance, there is an urgent need for novel antimicrobial compounds. Cationic surfactants are effective antimicrobial agents; however, traditional quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are increasingly scrutinized due to their cytotoxicity, poor biodegradability, and harmful effects [...] Read more.

Due to the growing emergence of bacterial and fungal resistance, there is an urgent need for novel antimicrobial compounds. Cationic surfactants are effective antimicrobial agents; however, traditional quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are increasingly scrutinized due to their cytotoxicity, poor biodegradability, and harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems. While the antimicrobial efficacy of many new biocides, including QACs, has been extensively studied, comprehensive experimental strategies that simultaneously assess antimicrobial activity, mammalian cell toxicity, and ecotoxicity remain limited. Recent studies have reported that amino-acid-based surfactants containing arginine-phenylalanine and arginine-tryptophan exhibit excellent antibacterial activity and are biodegradable. This work extends their biological characterization to evaluate their potential applications. Specifically, we examined how variations in the head group architecture and hydrophobic moiety influence antifungal and antibiofilm activity. We also assessed how these structural parameters impact cytotoxicity and ecotoxicity. These compounds demonstrated strong activity against a wide range of Candida strains. Their hydrophobic character primarily influenced both antifungal efficacy and cytotoxicity. Importantly, these surfactants exhibited potent antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects at non-cytotoxic concentrations. Notably, their aquatic toxicity was significantly lower than that of conventional QACs. Full article

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20 pages, 934 KB

Open AccessReview

Antioxidant Effect of Curcumin and Its Impact on Mitochondria: Evidence from Biological Models

by Karla Alejandra Avendaño-Briseño, Jorge Escutia-Martínez, Estefani Yaquelin Hernández-Cruz and José Pedraza-Chaverri

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050139 - 31 Aug 2025

Viewed by 745

Abstract

Curcumin, the principal active component of turmeric, is a polyphenol that has been used in various countries for the treatment of numerous conditions due to its wide range of health benefits. Curcumin exhibits bifunctional antioxidant properties: the first is attributed to its chemical [...] Read more.

Curcumin, the principal active component of turmeric, is a polyphenol that has been used in various countries for the treatment of numerous conditions due to its wide range of health benefits. Curcumin exhibits bifunctional antioxidant properties: the first is attributed to its chemical structure, which enables it to directly neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS); the second is related to its ability to induce the expression of antioxidant enzymes via the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2). Both ROS and Nrf2 are closely associated with mitochondrial function and metabolism, and their dysregulation may lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, potentially contributing to the development of various pathological conditions. Therefore, curcumin treatment appears highly promising and is strongly associated with the preservation of mitochondrial function. The aim of this review is to summarize the current literature on the impact of curcumin’s antioxidant properties on mitochondrial function. Specifically, studies conducted in different biological models are included, with emphasis on aspects such as mitochondrial respiration, antioxidant enzyme activity, interactions with mitochondrial membranes, and the role of curcumin in the regulation of intrinsic apoptosis. Full article

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17 pages, 2121 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Evolutionary Study in Glyphosate Oxidoreductase Gox Highlights Distinct Orthologous Groups and Novel Conserved Motifs That Can Classify Gox and Elucidate Its Biological Role

by Marina Giannakara, Vassiliki Lila Koumandou and Louis Papageorgiou

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050138 - 29 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Glyphosate Oxidoreductase (Gox) is an enzyme known to degrade glyphosate, an intensively used wide-spectrum herbicide. Although it was first reported back in 1995, much remains unknown about its role in bacteria, its distribution across the bacterial kingdom, and its structure. This information would [...] Read more.

Glyphosate Oxidoreductase (Gox) is an enzyme known to degrade glyphosate, an intensively used wide-spectrum herbicide. Although it was first reported back in 1995, much remains unknown about its role in bacteria, its distribution across the bacterial kingdom, and its structure. This information would be valuable for better understanding the degradation pathway of glyphosate and for discovering new enzymes with the same potential. In the present study, a holistic evolutionary analysis has been performed towards identifying homologue proteins within the FAD-dependent/binding oxidoreductases family and extracting critical characteristics related to conserved protein domains and motifs that play a key role in this enzyme’s function. A total of 2220 representative protein sequences from 843 species and 10 classes of bacteria were analyzed, from which 4 protein domains, 2 characteristic/functional regions, and 8 conserved motifs were identified based on multiple sequence alignment and the annotated information from biological databases. The major goal of this study is the presentation of a novel phylogenetic tree for the Gox-related proteins to identify the major protein clusters and correlate them based on their sequence, structural, and functional information towards identifying new possible pharmacological targets that are related to this specific enzyme function. Considering the lack of information about Gox, the aim of this paper is to fill in these knowledge gaps, which can help determine the biological role of Gox and consequently better understand its function. Full article

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22 pages, 3119 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silica Nanoparticles Induced Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition in BEAS-2B Cells via ER Stress and SIRT1/HSF1/HSPs Signaling Pathway

by Jinyan Pang, Liyan Xiao, Zhiqin Xiong, Kexin Zhang, Man Yang, Ji Wang, Yanbo Li and Yang Li

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050137 - 23 Aug 2025

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Abstract

The extensive utilization of amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) has raised concerns regarding the potential health risks. Previous studies have indicated that SiNPs could trigger both the activation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in BEAS-2B cells; however, the underlying mechanisms [...] Read more.

The extensive utilization of amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) has raised concerns regarding the potential health risks. Previous studies have indicated that SiNPs could trigger both the activation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in BEAS-2B cells; however, the underlying mechanisms require further elucidation. This study aimed to investigate how SiNPs activate the heat shock response (HSR) in BEAS-2B cells, which subsequently triggers EMT. Firstly, we observed that SiNPs were internalized by BEAS-2B cells and localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), inducing ER stress. The ER stress led to the activation of SIRT1 by phosphorylation, which enhanced the nuclear transcriptional activity of HSF1 via deacetylation. HSF1 was found to upregulate the levels of HSP70 and HSP27 proteins, which further affected EMT-related genes and, ultimately, induced EMT. Additionally, 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA) inhibited ER stress, which attenuated the SIRT1/HSF1 signaling pathway. The knockdown of SIRT1 and HSF1 using siRNA effectively suppressed the EMT progression. In summary, these results suggested that SiNPs activated the SIRT1/HSF1/HSPs pathway through ER stress, thereby triggering EMT in BEAS-2B cells. The present study identified a novel mechanism of SiNP-induced EMT, which has provided valuable insights for future toxicity studies and risk assessments of SiNPs. Full article

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21 pages, 420 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab for Predicting Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Binding to Nuclear Receptors

by Nina Franko, Manca Vetrih and Marija Sollner Dolenc

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050136 - 22 Aug 2025

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Abstract

This study investigated whether the Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab in silico platforms are suitable for predicting the endocrine disrupting effects of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)—in particular, for interactions with oestrogen receptors (ERs) and androgen receptor (AR). Compounds included in the U.S. Environmental [...] Read more.

This study investigated whether the Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab in silico platforms are suitable for predicting the endocrine disrupting effects of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)—in particular, for interactions with oestrogen receptors (ERs) and androgen receptor (AR). Compounds included in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s PFAS working list were analysed with both models, and the results were compared with the available in vitro data regarding their modulation of nuclear receptors. Based on the identified prediction parameters, such as sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and Mathews’ correlation coefficient, VirtualToxLab was found to be a reliable model for predicting the reactivity of PFASs with AR, while a positive consensus approach of both platforms provided reliable predictions of the PFAS reactivity with ERα and ERβ. This study provides the evidence that Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab can be used as a tier 1 screening tool for assessment of the endocrine disrupting effect of PFASs. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the likelihood of endocrine disrupting properties increases with the lipophilicity of PFASs and identifies the understudied PFHpS, PFNS, PFDS, 9-Cl, NMeFOSAA, NEtFOSAA, 4:2 FTS, 6:2 FTS, 8:2 FTS, 6:2 monoPAP, 8:2 monoPAP, and 5:3 acid as potential ligands of AR and/or ERs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in the Human Health: 2nd Edition)

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J. Xenobiot., Volume 15, Issue 5 (October 2025) – 19 articles

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