Journal of Xenobiotics

26 pages, 2774 KB

Open AccessArticle

Integrated Assessment of Silver Nanoparticles on Plant Growth and Cytogenotoxicity Using Triticum and Allium Bioassays

by Simona Elena Pisculungeanu, Liliana Cristina Soare, Oana Alexandra Luțu, Alina Păunescu, Georgiana Cîrstea, Aurelian Denis Negrea, Codruța Mihaela Dobrescu and Nicoleta Anca Ionescu (Șuțan)

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050147 - 12 Sep 2025

Abstract

The production and extensive use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in various fields necessitate thorough testing, not only in terms of their potential applications but also regarding the effects they induce on various organisms. In addition, nanoparticles generated from various anthropogenic activities, which reach [...] Read more.

The production and extensive use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in various fields necessitate thorough testing, not only in terms of their potential applications but also regarding the effects they induce on various organisms. In addition, nanoparticles generated from various anthropogenic activities, which reach or are formed in the atmosphere, have a significant impact on the health of humans and other living organisms. Recent research indicates that the effects produced by these nanoparticles are dependent on their size and applied dose. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the physiological, biochemical and cytogenotoxic effects induced by different doses of AgNPs compared to positive and negative controls in Triticum aestivum L. and Allium cepa L. A significant stimulatory effect of the treatment performed with the solution of AgNPs with a size of 20 nm, at the lowest concentration (0.02 µg mL⁻¹), in the two tested species, was obtained. The growth and weight of the seedling were significantly increased, and the mitotic index was also elevated. Additionally, this treatment variant showed the lowest percentage of chromosomal aberrations. No significant differences were observed in cell viability, total polyphenol content, proline levels, or assimilatory pigment concentrations compared to the control. Our findings show that AgNPs may exert stimulatory effects, whether significant or not, on certain physiological and biochemical parameters. However, they also interfere with cell cycle regulation and genomic stability, raising concerns regarding their environmental and biological safety. The Allium test proved to be an effective method for detecting nanoparticle-induced genotoxicity and can be recommended as a preliminary screening assay in nanoparticle safety evaluations. Full article

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42 pages, 5242 KB

Open AccessReview

The Mechanisms of Lead Toxicity in Living Organisms

by Anastasiia Generalova, Slavena Davidova and Galina Satchanska

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050146 - 11 Sep 2025

Abstract

Lead (Pb) is a non-essential, toxic heavy metal with no known biological function that has caused widespread environmental contamination throughout human history. Pb toxicity represents one of the most persistent environmental health challenges, with no safe exposure threshold identified. The metal demonstrates remarkable [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) is a non-essential, toxic heavy metal with no known biological function that has caused widespread environmental contamination throughout human history. Pb toxicity represents one of the most persistent environmental health challenges, with no safe exposure threshold identified. The metal demonstrates remarkable persistence in biological systems, with approximately 90% of it stored in bone tissue for decades, mimicking calcium due to its similar ionic properties. Contemporary contamination primarily stems from mining activities, battery manufacturing, electronic waste recycling, and deteriorating infrastructure. Pb enters organisms through multiple pathways and causes severe health impacts across all biological systems, with particularly devastating neurodevelopmental and bone effects in children and cardiovascular and reproductive consequences in adults. On a molecular level, Pb disrupts cellular processes through ion mimicry, replacing essential metals in enzymes and proteins and leading to mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, DNA damage, and epigenetic modifications. This review examines the sources of Pb pollution and its toxicological impacts on bacteria, fungi, plants, animals, and humans. It explores the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects, including neuroinflammation, genotoxicity, and cell death pathways. The paper considers current approaches for Pb removal from contaminated environments and therapeutic interventions for Pb poisoning. Full article

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14 pages, 1195 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Azithromycin on the Functioning of the Food Web in Freshwater Plankton

by Anita Galir, Dubravka Špoljarić Maronić, Filip Stević, Tanja Žuna Pfeiffer, Fran Prašnikar, Nikolina Bek, Eva Penava and Petra Križevac

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050145 - 10 Sep 2025

Abstract

High doses of the antibiotic azithromycin in freshwater environments can impact planktonic organisms at both the individual and community levels, influencing interactions at the base of the food web. This study investigated the effects of azithromycin on the natural rotifer community feeding on [...] Read more.

High doses of the antibiotic azithromycin in freshwater environments can impact planktonic organisms at both the individual and community levels, influencing interactions at the base of the food web. This study investigated the effects of azithromycin on the natural rotifer community feeding on phytoplankton from a eutrophic water body and its potential impacts on rotifer fitness (impaired mastax movement: slow, irregular or reduced frequency), grazing and mortality following acute exposure. The natural plankton community was exposed to three azithromycin concentrations based on the EC₅₀ value (EC₅₀, 1/2 EC₅₀ and 1/3 EC₅₀) and assessed at different exposure times (24, 48 and 72 h) in the microcosm experiments. The results showed that all azithromycin concentrations reduced the fitness of the rotifers, as indicated by impaired mastax movement and/or slow, irregular or reduced movement frequency. Impairment of mastax movement altered rotifer grazing and the abundance of phytoplankton. The rotifers in the control group suppressed abundant phytoplankton growth, suggesting that azithromycin impairs interspecific interactions between plankton species. Rotifer mortality occurred at 48 h after azithromycin exposure in all treated samples. These findings show that the effects of azithromycin can be observed at different trophic levels, affecting both phytoplankton and zooplankton through altered biotic interactions and suppressed grazing. Full article

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30 pages, 1422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Adverse Event Signals Associated with Beta-Lactamase Inhibitors: Disproportionality Analysis of USFDA Adverse Event Reporting System

by Kannan Sridharan and Gowri Sivaramakrishnan

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050144 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Background: Beta-lactamase inhibitors (BLIs) are widely used with beta-lactam antibiotics to combat resistant infections, yet their safety profiles, especially for newer agents, remain underexplored. This study aimed to identify potential adverse event (AE) signals associated with BLIs using the USFDA Adverse Event Reporting [...] Read more.

Background: Beta-lactamase inhibitors (BLIs) are widely used with beta-lactam antibiotics to combat resistant infections, yet their safety profiles, especially for newer agents, remain underexplored. This study aimed to identify potential adverse event (AE) signals associated with BLIs using the USFDA Adverse Event Reporting System (USFDA AERS). Methods: The USFDA AERS was queried for AE reports involving FDA-approved BLIs from March 2004 to March 2024. After removing duplicates, only reports with BLIs listed as primary suspects were included. Disproportionality analysis was conducted using frequentist and Bayesian approaches, with statistical significance assessed by chi-square testing. Results: A total of 12,456 unique reports were analyzed. Common AEs across BLIs included hematologic disorders, hypersensitivity reactions, emergent infections, organ dysfunction, and neurological complications. Signal detection revealed specific associations: septic shock and respiratory failure with avibactam; lymphadenopathy and congenital anomalies with clavulanic acid; antimicrobial resistance and epilepsy with relebactam; disseminated intravascular coagulation and cardiac arrest with sulbactam; and agranulocytosis and conduction abnormalities with tazobactam. For vaborbactam, no distinct AE signals were identified apart from off-label use. Mortality was significantly more frequent with avibactam and relebactam (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: This analysis highlights a spectrum of AE signals with BLIs, including unexpected associations warranting further investigation. While some events may reflect comorbidities or concomitant therapies, these findings underscore the importance of continued pharmacovigilance and targeted clinical studies to clarify causality and ensure the safe use of BLIs in practice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drug Therapeutics)

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12 pages, 2209 KB

Open AccessArticle

Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus in Seawater of Taizhou Bay, China

by Guanghua Xia, Chunling Han, Manting Chen, Guanjie Wang, Kejia Lu, Jianqiang Zhu and Jiachao Yao

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050143 - 9 Sep 2025

Abstract

Heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus play a significant role in the marine ecosystem and human health. In this work, the concentrations of heavy metals, inorganic nitrogen, and phosphorus were determined to assess the distribution characteristics, risk levels, and possible sources in seawater from [...] Read more.

Heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus play a significant role in the marine ecosystem and human health. In this work, the concentrations of heavy metals, inorganic nitrogen, and phosphorus were determined to assess the distribution characteristics, risk levels, and possible sources in seawater from Taizhou Bay. The concentration ranges of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Hg, As, ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate were 1.87–3.65 μg/L, 0.10–0.95 μg/L, 2.98–16.80 μg/L, 0.07–0.38 μg/L, 0.011–0.043 μg/L, 0.93–2.06 μg/L, 0.011–0.608 mg-N/L, 0.012–0.722 mg-N/L, 0.001–0.022 mg-N/L, and 0.004–0.044 mg-P/L, respectively. The ecological risks were evaluated by the single factor index, Nemerow pollution index, and risk quotient. The results indicated that Taizhou Bay is not currently facing ecological risk related to heavy metals, nitrogen, and phosphorus, but the RQ values emphasized the urgency of strengthening continuous monitoring of As, Cu, and Zn. The results of Pearson’s correlation indicated that salinity and chemical oxygen demand had a significant impact on nitrogen and phosphorus but little impact on heavy metals. Principal component analysis was then applied to analyze the probable origins of heavy metals and inorganic pollutants, suggesting that these pollutants were mainly derived from human activities along the bay. Full article

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16 pages, 1421 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sub-Toxic Exposure to DEPs and PM_2.5 Impairs Dendritic Cell Function Through Intracellular Particle Accumulation

by Yuki Nakahira, Daisuke Otomo, Tomoaki Okuda and Akira Onodera

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050142 - 8 Sep 2025

Abstract

Air pollution, particularly exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), poses a substantial risk to human health. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs), a major constituent of PM_2.5, contain chemically reactive components that promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune dysfunction. Although the [...] Read more.

Air pollution, particularly exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), poses a substantial risk to human health. Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs), a major constituent of PM_2.5, contain chemically reactive components that promote inflammation, oxidative stress, and immune dysfunction. Although the acute toxicity of PM_2.5 and DEPs has been extensively studied, their effects under “sub-toxic” conditions—defined here as exposures that do not cause measurable cytotoxicity based on LDH release but still impair cellular function—remain poorly understood. This study investigated the impact of low-toxicity exposure to DEPs and PM_2.5 on dendritic cell (DC) function using the human plasmacytoid DC-like cell line PMDC05. Cells exposed to DEPs or PM_2.5 exhibited minimal cytotoxicity but accumulated intracellular particles, resulting in impaired endocytosis, phagocytosis, and interferon gene expression upon TLR7 stimulation. These functional impairments were not observed following TLR4 stimulation, suggesting a selective disruption of endolysosomal signalling. The findings demonstrate that DEPs and PM_2.5 can impair innate immune responses without inducing cell death, likely through lysosomal overload and altered intracellular trafficking. This study identifies a non-cytotoxic pathway through which particulate air pollution may compromise antiviral immunity, thereby increasing susceptibility to infection in polluted environments. Strategies aimed at preserving lysosomal integrity and dendritic cell function may help mitigate the immunotoxic effects of airborne particles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Environmental Nanotoxicology—from Traditional Standard Toxicity Tests to the Application of New Approach Methodologies)

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21 pages, 1864 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Biomarker Assessment of Pesticide Exposure and Telomere Attrition in Mexican Children from Agricultural Communities

by Miguel Alfonso Ruiz-Arias, Yael Yvette Bernal-Hernández, Irma Martha Medina-Díaz, José Francisco Herrera-Moreno, Briscia Socorro Barrón-Vivanco, Francisco Alberto Verdín-Betancourt, Cyndia Azucena González-Arias, Eugenia Flores-Alfaro, Kenneth S. Ramos, Patricia Ostrosky-Wegman and Aurora Elizabeth Rojas-García

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050141 - 4 Sep 2025

Abstract

Children are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of pesticides due to physiological factors and behavioral habits. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of pesticide exposure on telomere length (TL) and the enzymatic activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and β-glucuronidase (β-Glu) [...] Read more.

Children are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of pesticides due to physiological factors and behavioral habits. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of pesticide exposure on telomere length (TL) and the enzymatic activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), and β-glucuronidase (β-Glu) in children ages 6 to 12 from an agricultural area in Mexico. A cross-sectional, descriptive, and analytical study was conducted involving 471 children. Blood samples were collected to assess TL through qPCR and enzymatic activity using established protocols. A pesticide exposure index (PEI) was developed incorporating biomarker levels, urinary dialkylphosphates (DAP), and proximity to farmland. No significant differences were observed in AChE activity across communities; however, BuChE activity was significantly higher in agricultural communities, while β-Glu activity varied among communities. Notably, children aged 6 in agricultural areas showed TL values similar to 12-year-old children in the reference community. Adjusted regression models revealed significantly shorter TL in children from agricultural communities and in children with moderate to high PEI. The findings indicate that chronic pesticide exposure was associated with telomere shortening in children, suggesting accelerated biological aging and potential genomic instability during critical developmental periods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Nutrition and the Environment on Human Metabolism)

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28 pages, 2367 KB

Open AccessArticle

Arginine-Derived Cationic Surfactants Containing Phenylalanine and Tryptophan: Evaluation of Antifungal Activity, Biofilm Eradication, Cytotoxicity, and Ecotoxicity

by M. Teresa García, M. Carmen Morán, Ramon Pons, Zakaria Hafidi, Elena Bautista, Sergio Vazquez and Lourdes Pérez

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050140 - 3 Sep 2025

Abstract

Due to the growing emergence of bacterial and fungal resistance, there is an urgent need for novel antimicrobial compounds. Cationic surfactants are effective antimicrobial agents; however, traditional quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are increasingly scrutinized due to their cytotoxicity, poor biodegradability, and harmful effects [...] Read more.

Due to the growing emergence of bacterial and fungal resistance, there is an urgent need for novel antimicrobial compounds. Cationic surfactants are effective antimicrobial agents; however, traditional quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are increasingly scrutinized due to their cytotoxicity, poor biodegradability, and harmful effects on aquatic ecosystems. While the antimicrobial efficacy of many new biocides, including QACs, has been extensively studied, comprehensive experimental strategies that simultaneously assess antimicrobial activity, mammalian cell toxicity, and ecotoxicity remain limited. Recent studies have reported that amino-acid-based surfactants containing arginine-phenylalanine and arginine-tryptophan exhibit excellent antibacterial activity and are biodegradable. This work extends their biological characterization to evaluate their potential applications. Specifically, we examined how variations in the head group architecture and hydrophobic moiety influence antifungal and antibiofilm activity. We also assessed how these structural parameters impact cytotoxicity and ecotoxicity. These compounds demonstrated strong activity against a wide range of Candida strains. Their hydrophobic character primarily influenced both antifungal efficacy and cytotoxicity. Importantly, these surfactants exhibited potent antimicrobial and antibiofilm effects at non-cytotoxic concentrations. Notably, their aquatic toxicity was significantly lower than that of conventional QACs. Full article

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20 pages, 934 KB

Open AccessReview

Antioxidant Effect of Curcumin and Its Impact on Mitochondria: Evidence from Biological Models

by Karla Alejandra Avendaño-Briseño, Jorge Escutia-Martínez, Estefani Yaquelin Hernández-Cruz and José Pedraza-Chaverri

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050139 - 31 Aug 2025

Abstract

Curcumin, the principal active component of turmeric, is a polyphenol that has been used in various countries for the treatment of numerous conditions due to its wide range of health benefits. Curcumin exhibits bifunctional antioxidant properties: the first is attributed to its chemical [...] Read more.

Curcumin, the principal active component of turmeric, is a polyphenol that has been used in various countries for the treatment of numerous conditions due to its wide range of health benefits. Curcumin exhibits bifunctional antioxidant properties: the first is attributed to its chemical structure, which enables it to directly neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS); the second is related to its ability to induce the expression of antioxidant enzymes via the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf2). Both ROS and Nrf2 are closely associated with mitochondrial function and metabolism, and their dysregulation may lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, potentially contributing to the development of various pathological conditions. Therefore, curcumin treatment appears highly promising and is strongly associated with the preservation of mitochondrial function. The aim of this review is to summarize the current literature on the impact of curcumin’s antioxidant properties on mitochondrial function. Specifically, studies conducted in different biological models are included, with emphasis on aspects such as mitochondrial respiration, antioxidant enzyme activity, interactions with mitochondrial membranes, and the role of curcumin in the regulation of intrinsic apoptosis. Full article

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17 pages, 2121 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Evolutionary Study in Glyphosate Oxidoreductase Gox Highlights Distinct Orthologous Groups and Novel Conserved Motifs That Can Classify Gox and Elucidate Its Biological Role

by Marina Giannakara, Vassiliki Lila Koumandou and Louis Papageorgiou

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050138 - 29 Aug 2025

Abstract

Glyphosate Oxidoreductase (Gox) is an enzyme known to degrade glyphosate, an intensively used wide-spectrum herbicide. Although it was first reported back in 1995, much remains unknown about its role in bacteria, its distribution across the bacterial kingdom, and its structure. This information would [...] Read more.

Glyphosate Oxidoreductase (Gox) is an enzyme known to degrade glyphosate, an intensively used wide-spectrum herbicide. Although it was first reported back in 1995, much remains unknown about its role in bacteria, its distribution across the bacterial kingdom, and its structure. This information would be valuable for better understanding the degradation pathway of glyphosate and for discovering new enzymes with the same potential. In the present study, a holistic evolutionary analysis has been performed towards identifying homologue proteins within the FAD-dependent/binding oxidoreductases family and extracting critical characteristics related to conserved protein domains and motifs that play a key role in this enzyme’s function. A total of 2220 representative protein sequences from 843 species and 10 classes of bacteria were analyzed, from which 4 protein domains, 2 characteristic/functional regions, and 8 conserved motifs were identified based on multiple sequence alignment and the annotated information from biological databases. The major goal of this study is the presentation of a novel phylogenetic tree for the Gox-related proteins to identify the major protein clusters and correlate them based on their sequence, structural, and functional information towards identifying new possible pharmacological targets that are related to this specific enzyme function. Considering the lack of information about Gox, the aim of this paper is to fill in these knowledge gaps, which can help determine the biological role of Gox and consequently better understand its function. Full article

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22 pages, 3119 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silica Nanoparticles Induced Epithelial–Mesenchymal Transition in BEAS-2B Cells via ER Stress and SIRT1/HSF1/HSPs Signaling Pathway

by Jinyan Pang, Liyan Xiao, Zhiqin Xiong, Kexin Zhang, Man Yang, Ji Wang, Yanbo Li and Yang Li

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050137 - 23 Aug 2025

Abstract

The extensive utilization of amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) has raised concerns regarding the potential health risks. Previous studies have indicated that SiNPs could trigger both the activation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in BEAS-2B cells; however, the underlying mechanisms [...] Read more.

The extensive utilization of amorphous silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) has raised concerns regarding the potential health risks. Previous studies have indicated that SiNPs could trigger both the activation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) and epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in BEAS-2B cells; however, the underlying mechanisms require further elucidation. This study aimed to investigate how SiNPs activate the heat shock response (HSR) in BEAS-2B cells, which subsequently triggers EMT. Firstly, we observed that SiNPs were internalized by BEAS-2B cells and localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), inducing ER stress. The ER stress led to the activation of SIRT1 by phosphorylation, which enhanced the nuclear transcriptional activity of HSF1 via deacetylation. HSF1 was found to upregulate the levels of HSP70 and HSP27 proteins, which further affected EMT-related genes and, ultimately, induced EMT. Additionally, 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA) inhibited ER stress, which attenuated the SIRT1/HSF1 signaling pathway. The knockdown of SIRT1 and HSF1 using siRNA effectively suppressed the EMT progression. In summary, these results suggested that SiNPs activated the SIRT1/HSF1/HSPs pathway through ER stress, thereby triggering EMT in BEAS-2B cells. The present study identified a novel mechanism of SiNP-induced EMT, which has provided valuable insights for future toxicity studies and risk assessments of SiNPs. Full article

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21 pages, 420 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab for Predicting Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Binding to Nuclear Receptors

by Nina Franko, Manca Vetrih and Marija Sollner Dolenc

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(5), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15050136 - 22 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study investigated whether the Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab in silico platforms are suitable for predicting the endocrine disrupting effects of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)—in particular, for interactions with oestrogen receptors (ERs) and androgen receptor (AR). Compounds included in the U.S. Environmental [...] Read more.

This study investigated whether the Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab in silico platforms are suitable for predicting the endocrine disrupting effects of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs)—in particular, for interactions with oestrogen receptors (ERs) and androgen receptor (AR). Compounds included in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s PFAS working list were analysed with both models, and the results were compared with the available in vitro data regarding their modulation of nuclear receptors. Based on the identified prediction parameters, such as sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and Mathews’ correlation coefficient, VirtualToxLab was found to be a reliable model for predicting the reactivity of PFASs with AR, while a positive consensus approach of both platforms provided reliable predictions of the PFAS reactivity with ERα and ERβ. This study provides the evidence that Endocrine Disruptome and VirtualToxLab can be used as a tier 1 screening tool for assessment of the endocrine disrupting effect of PFASs. Furthermore, it demonstrates that the likelihood of endocrine disrupting properties increases with the lipophilicity of PFASs and identifies the understudied PFHpS, PFNS, PFDS, 9-Cl, NMeFOSAA, NEtFOSAA, 4:2 FTS, 6:2 FTS, 8:2 FTS, 6:2 monoPAP, 8:2 monoPAP, and 5:3 acid as potential ligands of AR and/or ERs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Role of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in the Human Health: 2nd Edition)

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44 pages, 1673 KB

Open AccessReview

Managing PFAS in Sewage Sludge: Exposure Pathways, Impacts, and Treatment Innovations

by Luoana Florentina Pascu, Valentina Andreea Petre, Ioana Antonia Cimpean, Iuliana Paun, Florinela Pirvu and Florentina Laura Chiriac

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040135 - 21 Aug 2025

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a global concern due to their persistence, ubiquity, and accumulation in living organisms. Found in soils, biosolids, water, and the food chain, they pose health risks such as hormone disruption, immune damage, reproductive issues, and cancer. Regulations [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a global concern due to their persistence, ubiquity, and accumulation in living organisms. Found in soils, biosolids, water, and the food chain, they pose health risks such as hormone disruption, immune damage, reproductive issues, and cancer. Regulations mainly target older PFAS like PFOA and PFOS, while many newer PFAS, including breakdown products, are poorly understood in terms of distribution, behavior, and toxicity. To address this complex issue, this review offers a detailed overview of human exposure to PFAS and their toxic effects. It highlights biosolids as a key, understudied source of PFAS in the environment. The review also discusses limitations of testing, missing long-term cleanup data, and regulatory issues that neglect total exposure and vulnerable populations. Additionally, it evaluates, in the specific context of biosolids management, the effectiveness, scalability, benefits, and drawbacks of various treatment technologies, such as thermal processes (pyrolysis, incineration, smoldering combustion), advanced oxidation, adsorption, hydrothermal liquefaction, and biological degradation. This work combines environmental science, toxicology, and engineering to outline PFAS management in biosolids and proposes a research and policy plan. Focusing on regulating PFAS as a group, validating real-world results, and employing adaptable treatment strategies underscores the need for a coordinated, science-based effort to reduce PFAS risks worldwide. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Chemicals)

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20 pages, 2087 KB

Open AccessReview

Lead Poisoning in the Americas: Sources, Regulations, Health Impacts, and Molecular Mechanisms

by Blanca Miriam Torres-Mendoza, Asbiel Felipe Garibaldi-Ríos, Lourdes Del Carmen Rizo De La Torre, Ana María Puebla-Pérez, Luis E. Figuera, Guillermo Moisés Zúñiga-González, Belinda Claudia Gómez-Meda, Itzae Adonai Gutiérrez-Hurtado, Elvia Harumi Scott-López, Verónica Vázquez-González, Celeste Patricia Gazcón-Rivas and Martha Patricia Gallegos-Arreola

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040134 - 20 Aug 2025

Abstract

Lead poisoning is a significant public health issue, contributing to 0.6% of the global disease burden and disproportionately affecting developing countries. Vulnerable populations, such as children, pregnant women, and low-income communities, remain at high risk, often exposed to lead levels exceeding safe thresholds. [...] Read more.

Lead poisoning is a significant public health issue, contributing to 0.6% of the global disease burden and disproportionately affecting developing countries. Vulnerable populations, such as children, pregnant women, and low-income communities, remain at high risk, often exposed to lead levels exceeding safe thresholds. While the problem is global, this review focuses specifically on the Americas, regions with diverse regulatory landscapes and persistent environmental lead exposure. Regulatory frameworks vary widely, and the lack of global consensus on acceptable blood lead levels leaves important gaps in protection. This review compiles and updates knowledge on emerging sources of lead exposure in the region, evaluates advancements in regulatory approaches, and analyzes the molecular impacts of lead on human health. Using the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), lead was found to interact with 3448 genes, including those linked to inflammation and oxidative stress, and is associated with 4401 diseases and 799 disrupted pathways. These findings emphasize the need for regionally tailored interventions, strengthened policies, and further research on its health impacts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Toxicology and Human Health—2nd Edition)

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29 pages, 583 KB

Open AccessReview

Harnessing Engineered Microbial Consortia for Xenobiotic Bioremediation: Integrating Multi-Omics and AI for Next-Generation Wastewater Treatment

by Prabhaharan Renganathan, Lira A. Gaysina, Cipriano García Gutiérrez, Edgar Omar Rueda Puente and Juan Carlos Sainz-Hernández

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040133 - 19 Aug 2025

Abstract

The global increase in municipal and industrial wastewater generation has intensified the need for ecologically resilient and technologically advanced treatment systems. Although traditional biological treatment technologies are effective for organic load reduction, they often fail to remove recalcitrant xenobiotics such as pharmaceuticals, synthetic [...] Read more.

The global increase in municipal and industrial wastewater generation has intensified the need for ecologically resilient and technologically advanced treatment systems. Although traditional biological treatment technologies are effective for organic load reduction, they often fail to remove recalcitrant xenobiotics such as pharmaceuticals, synthetic dyes, endocrine disruptors (EDCs), and microplastics (MPs). Engineered microbial consortia offer a promising and sustainable alternative owing to their metabolic flexibility, ecological resilience, and capacity for syntrophic degradation of complex pollutants. This review critically examines emerging strategies for enhancing microbial bioremediation in wastewater treatment systems (WWTS), focusing on co-digestion, biofilm engineering, targeted bioaugmentation, and incorporation of conductive materials to stimulate direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET). This review highlights how multi-omics platforms, including metagenomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics, enable high-resolution community profiling and pathway reconstructions. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) algorithms into bioprocess diagnostics facilitates real-time system optimization, predictive modeling of antibiotic resistance gene (ARG) dynamics, and intelligent bioreactor control. Persistent challenges, such as microbial instability, ARG dissemination, reactor fouling, and the absence of region-specific microbial reference databases, are critically analyzed. This review concludes with a translational pathway for the development of next-generation WWTS that integrate synthetic microbial consortia, AI-mediated biosensors, and modular bioreactors within the One Health and Circular Economy framework. Full article

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18 pages, 1185 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ecotoxicological Assessment of Sediment Samples Impacted by Wastewater Treatment Plant Effluents Transporting Contaminants of Emerging Concern

by Carlos Silva, Ana Ré, Nelson Abrantes, Fernando J. M. Gonçalves and Joana Luísa Pereira

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040132 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents can be important sources of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) for riverine ecosystems, with some accumulation in sediments. This study investigated the ecotoxicological effects of sediment samples collected near three WWTPs. Sediment elutriates, simulating resuspension conditions, and whole [...] Read more.

Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents can be important sources of contaminants of emerging concern (CEC) for riverine ecosystems, with some accumulation in sediments. This study investigated the ecotoxicological effects of sediment samples collected near three WWTPs. Sediment elutriates, simulating resuspension conditions, and whole sediment samples were tested. Results showed that sediments were toxic to some organisms and beneficial to others. Elutriates from one site significantly reduced luminescence in the bacterium Aliivibrio fischeri, though this was not consistently linked to sediment contaminant levels. Significant noxious effects of elutriates were recorded for the macrophyte Lemma minor (yield reductions up to 48%) and the microalgae Raphidocelis subcapitata (yield reductions up to 25%). Exposure to elutriates resulted in increased Daphnia magna reproduction and increased biomass yield of Chironomus riparius exposed to sediments directly. Overall, there were no major toxicity variations in samples collected upstream and downstream of the effluent outfall. Suggesting limited hazardous potential of the effluent and a potential masking effect of background contamination (mostly metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons). The complexity of effluent-sourced contamination, coupled with the realistic testing approach, renders this work a valuable contribution to understanding the role of WWTP effluents in surface freshwaters contamination and their effects, especially concerning CECs. Full article

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35 pages, 2122 KB

Open AccessReview

Xenobiotic Toxicants and Particulate Matter: Effects, Mechanisms, Impacts on Human Health, and Mitigation Strategies

by Tamara Lang, Anna-Maria Lipp and Christian Wechselberger

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040131 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

Particulate matter (PM), a complex mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets, originates from both natural sources, such as sand, pollen, and marine salts, and anthropogenic activities, including vehicle emissions and industrial processes. While PM itself is not inherently toxic in all its [...] Read more.

Particulate matter (PM), a complex mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets, originates from both natural sources, such as sand, pollen, and marine salts, and anthropogenic activities, including vehicle emissions and industrial processes. While PM itself is not inherently toxic in all its forms, it often acts as a carrier of xenobiotic toxicants, such as heavy metals and organic pollutants, which adhere to its surface. This combination can result in synergistic toxic effects, significantly enhancing the potential harm to biological systems. Due to its small size and composition, PM can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract, acting as a physical “shuttle” that facilitates the distribution and bioavailability of toxic substances to distant organs. The omnipresence of PM in the environment leads to unavoidable and constant exposure, contributing to increased morbidity and mortality rates, particularly among vulnerable populations like the elderly, children, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions. This exposure also imposes a substantial financial burden on healthcare systems, as treating PM-related illnesses requires significant medical resources and leads to higher healthcare costs. Addressing these challenges necessitates effective mitigation strategies, including reducing PM exposure, improving air quality, and exploring novel approaches such as AI-based exposure prediction and nutritional interventions to protect public health and minimize the adverse effects of PM pollution. Full article

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24 pages, 15698 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardioprotective Effects of SAR Through Attenuating Cardiac-Specific Markers, Inflammatory Markers, Oxidative Stress, and Anxiety in Rats Challenged with 5-Fluorouracil

by Roza Haroon Rasheed and Tavga Ahmed Aziz

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040130 - 10 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the cardioprotective effects of two different doses of saroglitazar (SAR) in an animal model of cardiotoxicity induced by 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Thirty-five rats were randomly allocated into five groups: the negative control, which received distilled water; the 5-FU (150 [...] Read more.

This study aimed to evaluate the cardioprotective effects of two different doses of saroglitazar (SAR) in an animal model of cardiotoxicity induced by 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). Thirty-five rats were randomly allocated into five groups: the negative control, which received distilled water; the 5-FU (150 mg/kg as I.P.) group; the N-acetylcysteine (100 mg/kg) group; and the SAR (0.5 and 5 mg/kg) groups. The last three groups received 5-FU on day 10 along with their treatment. An open field test was performed at zero-time and at the end of the study. On day eleven the animals were euthanized and blood samples were used for measuring troponin I, CK-MB, natriuretic peptide, lipid profile, LDH, ALT, AST, CRP, ESR, TNF-α, IL1β, MDA, and total antioxidant capacity (TAOC). Cardiac tissues were sent for histopathological examination. The study revealed that 5-FU elevated the levels of cardiac-specific and injury-related biomarkers, inflammatory and oxidative stress markers, and that the use of SAR, particularly the high dose, decreased all the cardiac- and other injury-related biomarkers as well as attenuating inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers. SAR-treated groups exhibited a significant increase in locomotor activity and a decrease in anxiety-like behavior, indicated by a reduction in time spent in one square and an increase in total movement time. Additionally, the histopathological findings greatly supported the biochemical results evidenced by stopping the detrimental effects caused by 5-FU through structural and functional alterations of cardiac tissues manifested as ameliorating congestion, inflammation, degeneration, arterial wall thinning, and endothelial loss. The dual-acting PPAR agonist SAR demonstrated cardiac protection activity, particularly the high dose, by attenuating cardiac-specific and nonspecific injury biomarkers along with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities and attenuated anxiety induced by 5-FU. These findings render SAR a promising candidate to be tested in clinical trials. Further studies are warranted with other cardiotoxicants to confirm these findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drug Therapeutics)

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23 pages, 9644 KB

Open AccessReview

Xenobiotics and Broiler Microbiota: Molecular Insights into Bacterial Antimicrobial Resistance and Food Safety Implications for Human Health

by Marta Gonçalves, Nuno Vale, Paulo Martins da Costa and Paula Silva

J. Xenobiot. 2025, 15(4), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/jox15040129 - 8 Aug 2025

Abstract

Antibiotics have played an evolving role in poultry production, generally transitioning from widespread use to more precise and controlled applications. Despite this shift, the long-term consequences of earlier practices continue to affect current and future generations. This review aims to explore the multifaceted [...] Read more.

Antibiotics have played an evolving role in poultry production, generally transitioning from widespread use to more precise and controlled applications. Despite this shift, the long-term consequences of earlier practices continue to affect current and future generations. This review aims to explore the multifaceted consequences of antibiotic use in poultry production, with particular emphasis on the growing challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Evidence demonstrates that antibiotic use affects the gut microbiome, often resulting in long-lasting decreased diversity and restructuring of the bacterial communities. Moreover, consequences extend to the surrounding environment, including the airborne microbiome, water systems, and poultry litter, where alterations in microbial communities tend to be more subtle, whereas changes in genetic elements related to resistance are often more pronounced (drift). The emergence and persistence of resistance in these environments facilitate the spread of resistance genes across ecological boundaries, contributing to the broader dissemination of AMR. These findings highlight the complex, interconnected nature of AMR, underscoring the urgent need for responses grounded in the One Health framework. Such approaches are essential for safeguarding both public and environmental health while maintaining sustainable poultry production practices. Full article

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