Food Losses and Wastage along the Wheat Value Chain in Egypt and Their Implications on Food and Energy Security, Natural Resources, and the Environment
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Wheat in Egypt
2. Review of the Literature on Food Loss and Wastage
2.1. Loss and Wastage in MENA
2.2. Food Loss and Wastage in Other Parts of the World
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Sample Selection and Procedures
3.2. Estimation of Farm Management-Related Losses during Crop Growth on the Field
3.3. Measurement of Pre-Harvest and Harvest Losses
3.4. Measurement of Storage Losses
3.4.1. On-Farm Storage
3.4.2. Storage in Shona (Open-Air Storage)
3.4.3. Storage in Silos
3.5. Transportation Losses
3.6. Processing Loss
3.7. Marketing Loss
3.8. Consumption Loss
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Preharvest Loss
4.2. Harvest Loss
4.3. Farm Management-Related Loss
4.4. Transportation Loss
4.5. Storage Loss
4.6. Processing Loss
4.7. Marketing Losses
4.8. Consumption Losses
4.8.1. Losses and Wastage during Consumption at Restaurants
4.8.2. Losses and Wastage during Consumption at Households
4.9. Aggregation of All Losses and Wastage to the National Level
4.10. Implications on Food and Energy Security, Resources, and the Environment
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Informed Consent Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Year | Wheat Area (Million Hectare) | Average Yield Ton/Ha | Total Production Million Ton |
---|---|---|---|
1981 | 0.588 | 3.31 | 1.94 |
1986 | 0.570 | 3.81 | 1.93 |
1991 | 0.931 | 4.83 | 4.48 |
1996 | 1.017 | 5.64 | 5.74 |
2001 | 0.984 | 6.35 | 6.26 |
2006 | 1.257 | 6.43 | 8.27 |
2011 | 1.277 | 6.53 | 8.37 |
2016 | 1.417 | 6.66 | 9.40 |
2020 | 1.331 | 6.37 | 8.49 |
Sample Size per Governorate | Number of Governorates | Replications | Seasons | Total Samples | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pre-harvest and harvest losses | |||||
Pre-harvest | 25 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 300 |
Mechanical harvest | 25 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 300 |
Hand harvest | 25 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 300 |
Threshing and cleaning | 25 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 300 |
Storage Losses | |||||
Farmer’s store | 10 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 120 |
Government (Shona) | 10 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 120 |
Government (silos) | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 24 |
Transportation Loss | |||||
Field to farmer store | 23 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 138 |
Field to accumulation point | 23 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 138 |
Accumulation points to mills | 23 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 138 |
Silos to mills | 23 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 138 |
Food processing | |||||
Mills | 2 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 12 |
Governorate (Region) | Harvest Type | Share of This Harvesting Method in Total Regional Wheat Area (%) | 2016/2017 | 2017/2018 | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Max Yield Ton/Ha | Observed Yield Ton/Ha | Loss | Max Yield Ton/Ha | Observed Yield Ton/Ha | Loss | |||||
Ton/Ha | % | Ton/Ha | % | |||||||
Dakahlia (Lower Egypt) | Reaper without bundling | 45% | 7.43 | 6.73 | 0.71 | 9.42 | 7.08 | 6.45 | 0.63 | 8.88 |
Reaper with bundling | 30% | 8.14 | 7.32 | 0.82 | 10.00 | 7.17 | 6.50 | 0.67 | 9.31 | |
Rice harvester | 25% | 8.28 | 7.13 | 1.15 | 13.88 | 6.99 | 6.42 | 0.57 | 8.09 | |
Beni Suef (Middle Egypt) | Reaper without bundling | 10% | 7.45 | 6.35 | 1.10 | 14.80 | 8.633 | 8.05 | 0.58 | 7.51 |
Manual harvest | 90% | 6.91 | 6.06 | 0.85 | 12.25 | 8.56 | 7.71 | 0.85 | 3.86 | |
Qena (Upper Egypt) | Reaper without bundling | 10% | 10.14 | 8.98 | 1.16 | 11.44 | 7.77 | 7.13 | 0.64 | 8.22 |
Manual harvest | 90% | 8.06 | 7.60 | 0.46 | 5.75 | 7.66 | 7.05 | 0.61 | 7.92 |
Region | 2016/17 | 2017/18 | Two-Year Average | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area-Weighted Harvest and Threshing Loss (%) | Total Area (Hectare) | Area-Weighted Harvest and Threshing Loss (%) | Total Area (Hectare) | Area-Weighted Harvest and Threshing Loss (%) | Total Area (Hectare) | |
Lower Egypt | 10.72% | 641,800 (52%) | 8.81% | 637,035 | 9.76% | 639,417 |
Middle Egypt | 12.51% | 233,923 (19%) | 7.43% | 229,191 | 9.97% | 231,557 |
Upper Egypt | 6.32% | 234,949 (19%) | 7.95% | 209,198 | 7.13% | 222,074 |
New Valley ^ | 10.16% | 116,241 (9%) | 8.35% | 250,448 | 9.26% | 183,344 |
Total | 10.16% | 1,226,913 (100%) | 8.35% | 1,325,872 | 9.26% | 1,276,392 |
Variable Name | Variable Description | Coef. | Std. Err. |
---|---|---|---|
Yield Equation | |||
lnplot_areaha | Plot area in hectares (ha) | 1.19 × 10−3 | 6.66 × 10−3 |
lnlbrha | Number of labor days per ha | −5.38 × 10−3 | 2.40 × 10−3 ** |
lnirrigha | Quantity of irrigation (m3/ha) | 1.88 × 10−1 | 4.02 × 10−2 *** |
lntspha | Quantity of TSP fertilizer (kg/ha) | 1.49 × 10−5 | 7.43 × 10−4 |
lnureaha | Quantity of Urea fertilizer (kg/ha) | −1.33 × 10−2 | 3.54 × 10−2 |
lnseedha | Quantity of seed (kg/ha) | −1.51 × 10−1 | 2.71 × 10−2 *** |
_cons | Constant term (intercept) | 8.29 × 100 | 9.42 × 100 |
The Inefficiency model | |||
Sex_hhh | Sex of the household head (1 = male, 0 = female) | −2.04 × 10−2 | 1.76 × 10−2 |
lnage_hhh | Age of the household head | 3.08 × 10−2 | 1.71 × 10−2 * |
Total_area | Total area cultivated by the household (ha) | 7.63 × 10−4 | 7.67 × 10−4 |
rotation | Rotation was practiced on the plot (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 7.05 × 10−3 | 8.67 × 10−3 |
raisedbed | Raised beds built on the plot? (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | −4.01 × 10−2 | 1.21 × 10−2 *** |
ImpVar | Improved wheat variety used? (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | 6.14 × 10−3 | 1.14 × 10−2 |
sowdate | Recommended sowing date used? (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | −2.56 × 10−2 | 9.76 × 10−3 *** |
harvdate | Recommended harvest date practiced? (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | −2.26 × 10−2 | 1.08 × 10−2 ** |
past_project | Farmer participated in past projects (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | −7.71 × 10−2 | 1.03 × 10−2 *** |
deepsoil | Soil on the plot was deep (1 = Yes, 0 = No) | −9.46 × 10−3 | 1.39 × 10−2 |
_cons | 1.73 × 10−1 | 9.42 × 100 | |
/lnsigma2 | −4.93 × 100 | 5.37 × 10−2 *** | |
/ilgtgamma | −2.65 × 100 | 1.74 × 10+2 | |
sigma2 | 7.22 × 10−3 | 3.88 × 10−4 | |
gamma | 6.61 × 10−2 | 1.07 × 10+1 | |
sigma_u2 | 4.77 × 10−4 | 7.73 × 10−2 | |
sigma_v2 | 6.74 × 10−3 | 7.73 × 10−2 |
Year | 2016/2017 | 2017/2018 | Two-Year Average | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Total potential production of wheat including what is lost before and during harvest (tons/year) = TPP | 9,821,457.91 | 9,191,978.21 | 9,506,718.06 | |
Total actual national production of wheat or total harvest (tons/year) = TH | 8,753,009.00 | 8,348,628.00 | 8,550,818.50 | |
Preharvest loss (tons/year) = PrHL | 78,571.66 | 82,727.80 | 80,807.10 | |
Harvest loss(tons/year) = HL | 989,877.24 | 760,622.41 | 872,368.06 | |
Total imports of wheat (tons/year) = TIW | 12,000,000 | 12,000,000 | 12,000,000 | |
Total exports of wheat (tons/year) = TEXW | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Total wheat that could potentially have become available in the country in the absence of loss (tons/year) = TPAW | 21,821,457.91 | 21,191,978.21 | 21,506,718.06 | |
Total wheat available in the country (tons/year) = TAW | 20,753,009 | 20,348,628 | 20,550,818.5 | |
Share of restaurants in total national wheat consumption (%) = SRTC | 20% | 15% | 18% | |
Share of households in total national wheat consumption (%) = SHTC | 80.00% | 85.00% | 82.50% | |
Percentage Loss at Each Node | Loss Per Unit Amount Entering the Node (%) | |||
2017 | 2018 | Average | Rank | |
Farm management-related loss (%) = TFMRL | 8.22% | 8.22% | 8.22% | 2 |
Pre-harvest loss (%) = PrHLR | 0.80% | 0.90% | 0.85% | 7 |
Harvest loss (%) = HLR | 10.16% | 8.35% | 9.26% | 1 |
Transportation loss (%) = TLR | 0.27% | 0.25% | 0.26% | 8 |
Storage loss (%) = SLR | 4.80% | 3.60% | 4.20% | 4 |
Processing loss (%) = PLR | 1.90% | 1.76% | 1.83% | 6 |
Marketing loss (%) = MLR | 3.63% | 5.88% | 4.76% | 3 |
Total consumption loss (%) = TCLR | 3.06% | 2.77% | 2.91% | 5 |
Loss during consumption at restaurants (%) = RCLR (Based on actual measurements) | 7.65% | 7.65% | 7.65% | |
Loss during consumption at households (%) = HCLR (assuming 25% of loss in restaurants) | 1.91% | 1.91% | 1.91% | |
Share of each node in total loss out of the amount of what entering the system (%) | Loss as percentage of total wheat that enters the system (from local production or imports after discounting the cumulative amount that has already been lost in the preceding nodes (%) | |||
2017 | 2018 | Average | Rank | |
Farm management-related loss (%) = TFMRL | 3.70% | 3.57% | 3.63% | 4 |
Pre-harvest loss (%) = PrHLR | 0.35% | 0.38% | 0.36% | 7 |
Harvest loss (%) = HLR | 4.39% | 3.48% | 3.93% | 3 |
Transportation loss (%) = TLR | 0.26% | 0.24% | 0.25% | 8 |
Storage loss (%) = SLR | 4.55% | 3.45% | 4.00% | 2 |
Processing loss (%) = PLR | 1.72% | 1.63% | 1.67% | 6 |
Marketing loss (%) = MLR | 3.23% | 5.35% | 4.27% | 1 |
Total consumption loss (%) = TCLR | 2.62% | 2.38% | 2.50% | 5 |
Loss during consumption at restaurants (%) = RCLR (Based on actual measurements) | 0.52% | 0.36% | 0.44% | |
Loss during consumption at households (%) = HCLR (assuming 25% of loss in restaurants) | 2.10% | 2.02% | 2.06% | |
Total loss out of the total wheat that would have become potentially available in the absence of loss (%) | 20.82% | 20.46% | 20.62% | |
Total amount of wheat that has been lost (tons) | 4,542,281 | 4,335,916 | 4,435,696 |
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Yigezu, Y.A.; Moustafa, M.A.; Mohiy, M.M.; Ibrahim, S.E.; Ghanem, W.M.; Niane, A.-A.; Abbas, E.; Sabry, S.R.S.; Halila, H. Food Losses and Wastage along the Wheat Value Chain in Egypt and Their Implications on Food and Energy Security, Natural Resources, and the Environment. Sustainability 2021, 13, 10011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810011
Yigezu YA, Moustafa MA, Mohiy MM, Ibrahim SE, Ghanem WM, Niane A-A, Abbas E, Sabry SRS, Halila H. Food Losses and Wastage along the Wheat Value Chain in Egypt and Their Implications on Food and Energy Security, Natural Resources, and the Environment. Sustainability. 2021; 13(18):10011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810011
Chicago/Turabian StyleYigezu, Yigezu A., Moustafa A. Moustafa, Mohamed M. Mohiy, Shaimaa E. Ibrahim, Wael M. Ghanem, Abdoul-Aziz Niane, Enas Abbas, Sami R. S. Sabry, and Habib Halila. 2021. "Food Losses and Wastage along the Wheat Value Chain in Egypt and Their Implications on Food and Energy Security, Natural Resources, and the Environment" Sustainability 13, no. 18: 10011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810011
APA StyleYigezu, Y. A., Moustafa, M. A., Mohiy, M. M., Ibrahim, S. E., Ghanem, W. M., Niane, A. -A., Abbas, E., Sabry, S. R. S., & Halila, H. (2021). Food Losses and Wastage along the Wheat Value Chain in Egypt and Their Implications on Food and Energy Security, Natural Resources, and the Environment. Sustainability, 13(18), 10011. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131810011