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Article

Hybrid Grapes for a Sustainable Viticulture in South Italy: Parentage Diagram Analysis and Metal Assessment in a Homemade Wine of Chambourcin Cultivar

by
Valentina Roviello
1,*,
Ugo Caruso
2,
Giovanni Dal Poggetto
3 and
Daniele Naviglio
2
1
Department of Chemical, Materials and Industrial Production Engineering (DICMaPI), University of Naples Federico II, Piazzale V. Tecchio 80, 80125 Naples, Italy
2
Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Via Cintia 21, 80126 Naples, Italy
3
Ecoricerche s.r.l, Via Principi Normanni, 36, 80143 Capua, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2021, 13(22), 12472; https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212472
Submission received: 11 October 2021 / Revised: 5 November 2021 / Accepted: 5 November 2021 / Published: 11 November 2021
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Abstract

:
The aim of this work was to explore a more sustainable approach in the viticulture of Mediterranean countries that could derive from growing hybrid grape varieties inheriting tolerance/resistance characters from the wild vines utilized for their selection. Among the plethora of hybrid grapes developed in the last decades, some are able to produce high-quality wines whose flavor resembles European varieties, thus overcoming a typical limit of several old hybrids based on V. labrusca whose wine was characterized by a distinctive wild flavor. In this context, we examined some characteristics of Chambourcin, one of the most promising hybrid cultivars producing quality red wine and requiring much less phytosanitary interventions than European grapevine. In detail, the scope of this study included the investigation of the parentage diagram for this hybrid grape variety and the chemical analysis of a Chambourcin wine produced in South Italy. We filled the gaps corresponding to some of the Vitis ancestors participating in its complex pedigree by means of a literature analysis and a mathematical approach. We found high ancestry of V. vinifera (about 41%), followed by V. berlandieri (about 28%), V. rupestris (about 19%) and to a lesser extent other American wild vines. The significant content of V. berlandieri and V. rupestris genome in Chambourcin explains the considerable resistance of this variety to the two main pathogens affecting grapevines, i.e., downy mildew and powdery mildew. We then analyzed an organic Chambourcin wine produced in South Italy from grapes obtained without any phytosanitary treatment by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-OES) in order to assess heavy metal content and found it comparable to other (red and rosè) V. vinifera wines obtained from family-run vineyards. Heavy metals contents detected were not of concern for any of the wines analyzed, however, copper accumulation in V. vinifera vineyard soils, and pollution deriving from other phytosanitary chemicals remain issues that in the case of Chambourcin vineyards could be solved at least in large part.

1. Introduction

Among the more than fifty species of vines belonging to the genus Vitis, a great part of which are native to America, Vitis vinifera (European grapevine) is the most widely cultivated worldwide [1]. The cultivation of European grape and wine-making, whose centers of origin are believed to be in the Eurasian area between Black and Caspian Seas, have been documented in Europe, particularly in South Italy, since antiquity [2]. Today, growing V. vinifera requires numerous phytosanitary treatments [3,4,5] for vine disease management during different stages, ranging from pre-flowering to grape bunch formation, as a consequence of the introduction of pathogens like Plasmopara viticola (causative agent of downy mildew [6]) and Erisyphe necator (causing powdery mildew) [7,8] on imported American cuttings in the 1850s [9]. In the same period, the North American insect Phylloxera vastatrix invaded European vineyards, causing the devastation of V. vinifera roots across Europe [10]. To overcome this enormous issue, the practice of grafting V. vinifera cultivars on rootstocks deriving from Phylloxera-resistant American vines took place and this is why presently modern vineyards make use exclusively of grafted grapevines in which ancient varieties are immortalized [11]. Among the several phytosanitary interventions, those directed to control powdery mildew and downy mildew are based on sulfur- and copper-containing products, with rameic sulphate + calcium hydroxide/copper oxychloride being one of the treatments most commonly used [12]. Such products are often used in combination with systemic phytosanitary drugs [13], and the total number of phytosanitary treatments needed yearly is in strong correlation with weather conditions, latitude, and grapevine cultivar. At least four interventions per year are often necessary for vineyard management leading to the dispersion of about eight kilograms of Cu per hectare yearly [14]. Family-run vineyards, very common in Mediterranean countries, can also remain productive after 100 years or longer [15]. Hence, copper accumulates in soils of traditional vineyards, but also at a more moderate degree of younger industrial vineyards, leading to environmental contamination. Despite a very low copper (<100 ppb) content being detected in homemade V. vinifera wines, extensive use of metal-based and systemic phytosanitary products in European grapevine cultivation leads to copper accumulation and other forms of pollution in vineyards [16]. Hence, there is an urgent need to reduce chemical treatments in viticulture to protect the environment [17], aquatic life that is particularly impacted by Cu accumulation [18], and beneficial leaf arthropods [19]. Pollution reduction in viticulture can be achieved by using more sustainable phytosanitary products of natural origin, such as orange oil and neem oil, as well growing disease-resistant grape varieties such as the so-called PIWI varieties [20,21]. Moreover, pesticide use can be reduced using not only essential oils instead of copper products, and redesigning viticulture with resistant grape varieties, but also by new organizational methods, e.g., adopting new spraying decision rules, and decision aid tools, that guarantee the sustainability of new viticulture systems [22].
Although V. vinifera occupies the majority of commercial wine production in Europe, several American species, including V. aestivalis, V. berlandieri, V. cinerea, V. labrusca, V. lincecumii, and V. rupestris [23] play important roles in viticulture in other areas of the globe, especially America. In fact, together with V. vinifera, these wild vine species have yielded hundreds of hybrid grape cultivars mainly produced in North America since the 1850s, and France sometime later [24]. American grape species confer to their crosses resistance to diseases as well hardiness in various climates and soils. Wines produced from V. vinifera cultivars are good in flavor and have excellent aging properties. However, European grapevine is susceptible to diseases, and typically lower yielding, while North-American hybrids overcame these limits by including V. labrusca in their pedigree, but they inherited the distinctive wild flavor from this grape species [1]. Aiming at meeting the demand for fine dry wines, French grape breeders carried out their hybridization programs more than one century ago, combining the favorable cultural features of North American species with the quality-wine-producing capability of European grapes [1]. These breeders particularly appreciated species like V. berlandieri, and V. rupestris while avoiding V. labrusca for the characteristic wild aroma and flavor that were not appreciated in European wines. Hence, beginning in the 1860s, prolific breeders like Albert Seibel followed by Bertille Seyve, Bertille Seyve Jr. (Seyve-Villard), Joannès Seyve, and others, produced hundreds of thousands of grape crosses till the period between the World Wars [25]. This latter breeder developed a downy-mildew-resistant hybrid named Chambourcin, but also known as Joannes Seyve 26-205 (J.S. 26-205) [26,27,28], that became available on the market in 1963, emerging as one of the most promising hybrid varieties producing quality red wine. The foliage is highly resistant to downy mildew, and moderately susceptible to powdery mildew. Wines from this grape are ranked among the best of the hybrid varieties. While grape hybrids, widely planted in Europe—including Italy—during the 1950s, have seen a decline in recent decades due to European wine laws forbidding the cultivation of grapevines not belonging to the V. vinifera species for appellation wine, interestingly, in France there are still more than 400 hectares of vineyards planted with Chambourcin which, probably for the high reputation of its wines, ranked among the best of the hybrid cultivars and is officially listed in the French “Catalogue of vine varieties” (https://plantgrape.plantnet-project.org/en/cepage/Chambourcin, accessed on 1 October 2021). Due to its high disease and cold resistance [29] compared to V. vinifera, Chambourcin is extensively cultivated also in areas where viticulture had been marginal if not impossible like North America. In the present work. we examined the grape cultivar phylogenies of Chambourcin and quantified the ancestry contents of V. vinifera and other North American species in the pedigree of the J.S. 26-205 in order to correlate them with possible resistance of the hybrid under investigation to the main diseases affecting grapes in South Italy. Moreover, the chemical analysis of a homemade wine obtained without any phytosanitary treatment from a small experimental Chambourcin vineyard in South Italy was conducted by Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) in order to assess its heavy metal content compared to other V. vinifera wines.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Cultivar Parentage Study

In this work, we explored the phylogenies of Chambourcin cultivar by using a theoretical approach in which we considered the Vitis ancestry contents for the grapevines that were used in the complex hybridization route to the successful hybrid grape object of the present work according to the literature and the breeders’ notes. In fact, considering the major role that artificial interspecific crossing has played since the early 1800s in grapevine selection, producing distinct and sometimes commercially important varieties, analyzing grape cultivar phylogenies [30] may allow one to examine the complex relationship between breeders’ objectives and hybridization boundaries, as well to direct new efforts in specific hybridization programs based on the most promising results achieved so far [31].
Grapevine parentage for Chambourcin was analyzed starting from the parentage diagrams available for Seibel 6468, Subereux, and Plantet at the link http://chateaustripmine.info/Parentage.htm (accessed on 29 September 2021) [32]. The pedigree of Vivarais (Seibel 2003) was found in the literature [33]. In parentage diagrams, cultivars belonging to pure V. vinifera species were identified by means of reported ‘V. vinifera’ notations or the specific European grape cultivar name. Percentages of ancestry from V. vinifera, V. rupestris, V. labrusca, V. lincecumii, V. labrusca, V. aestivalis, and V. cinerea were then calculated on the basis of the resulting parentage diagram obtained for Chambourcin as J.S.-11-369 (Seibel 6468 × Subereux) × Plantet. As pedigree for Seibel 451 was not reported by the breeder, the one known for Seibel 452 and reported at the link http://chateaustripmine.info/Parentage/Seibel%2013053.gif (accessed on 29 September 2021) was used in the assumption that consecutive numbers for names of Seibel hybrids indicate similar parantages (see for example: Seibel 7052 and 7053, as well the not-consecutive but proximal 11,257 and 11,259; http://chateaustripmine.info/Parentage.htm, accessed on 29 September 2021). The name ‘Blanc Roval’ was assumed to refer to Chasselas Blanc Royal, a synonym of Chasselas Blanc (V. vinifera). The mathematical approach of our study led, for example, in the case of the cultivar Herbemont, a cross of a Vitis vinifera × a hybrid of Vitis aestivalis × Vitis cinerea, the following Vitis content: 50% Vitis vinifera, 25% Vitis aestivalis, 25% Vitis cinerea. Moreover, the cultivar Vivarais is a cross of Herbemont × Jaeger 70 (that in turn is a hybrid Vitis lincecumii × Vitis rupestris). In this case we calculated parentage of Vivarais as: (50% Vitis vinifera, 25% Vitis aestivalis, 25% Vitis cinerea)/2 + (50% Vitis lincecumii 50% Vitis rupestris)/2 = 25% Vitis vinifera, 12.5% Vitis aestivalis, 12.5% Vitis cinerea, 25% Vitis lincecumii, 25% Vitis rupestris. We applied the above approach to the analysis of the Chambourcin parentage, calculating the Vitis contents for all intermediates reported in the parentage diagram of the cultivar.

2.2. Grape Material, Wine Processing and Samples

Both the V. vinifera and Chambourcin vineyards were fertilized with pelleted organic manure (300 kg/Ha) in early February and tilled 3 times: in March, May and June. All grapevines were pruned in late December. European grapevines underwent 4 phytosanitary treatments with the Bordeaux mixture (35% Cu, 1 kg/300 L; S 1 kg/300 L), while the Chambourcin vines were not treated at all. Grapes harvested in September–October were processed by means of an automatic stainless-steel crusher-destemmer (Agrieuro 1,2 HP, Italy) and then underwent processing in a manual press leading to a must that was fermented over two weeks with or without skin contact. The skin-fermented wine was separated from grape skins using a manual press and clarified two times (in December, and late March), while in the second case the wine was directly separated from sediments and clarified as described above. All wines were stored by rigorously excluding any wine-air contacts without any bisulphite addition. Some main differences between our ‘homemade’ process and the industrial ones are the type of soil fertilization (organic manure vs. chemical fertilizers), the type and number of phytosanitary treatments (Cu/S based products vs. systemic products, 0–4 interventions per year vs. more than 4) and wine storage (no bisulphites added in our case).
We analyzed the following samples of wine, obtained from our family-run vineyards in South Italy, having each a volume of 2 × 1 L: ‘red wine’: V. vinifera, skin-fermented; ‘rosè wine’: V. vinifera fermented without any skin contact [16]; ‘Chambourcin’: must from not sprayed hybrid grape fermented without any skin contact; all samples were analyzed six months after the fermentation, following two settling steps on the naturally clarified wine.

2.3. Chemical Analysis of Wine Samples

The importance of determining heavy metals in wine depends on their potential harmful effects on human health as when the heavy metal content, and in particular the Pb level (that should never exceed 200 ppb), in wine is significant, the beneficial wine antioxidant effect (in lowering cardiovascular risk) may be outweighed by other adverse effects [34]. The chemical analysis of wine samples (‘red wine’, ‘rosè wine’, and ‘Chambourcin’) was performed after a 1:10 (v/v) dilution on an ICP-OES 5110, (Agilent Tech.). The analyses of all samples were conducted based on calibration lines built according to EPA 6010 [35] and three repetitions of each sample’s analysis were performed. The values reported in our study were averaged from the three repeats. Our LOQ (limit of quantification) was 5 ppb and the following metals were measured and analyzed: Al, As, Be, Cd, Cr (VI and total), Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, Tl, V, Zn, Sb.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Pedigree of Chambourcin: From Molecular Markers and Breeders’ Records to a Parentage Diagram Analysis

Phylogenies of Chambourcin (Figure 1) were considered in doubt because two different pedigrees were available, one—obtained through breeder and bibliography—describes it as an offspring of ‘Seyve Villard 12-417′ as female parent, and ‘Seibel 7053′ (Chancellor, male parent) [30]. However, the allelic haplotype of the ‘Chancellor’ did not introgress to ‘Chambourcin’, suggesting it not to be a male parent for this cultivar [30,31]. A second pedigree obtained with the help of genotype data led to the conclusion that ‘Joannes Seyve-11-369′ (J.S. 11-369, female) and ‘Plantet’ (Seibel 5455, male) are the parents of Chambourcin which was confirmed through markers [30,31]. Thus, in our ancestry evaluation we started from this latter pedigree that we considered to be the correct one. The pedigree of the female parent ‘Joannes Seyve-11-369′ reported by the breeder was confirmed through molecular markers as ‘Seibel 6468′ × ‘Seibel 6905′ (Subereux), while the male parent Plantet is an offspring of Seibel 4461 (female parent) and wild grapevine V. berlandieri (male parent) [30]. Consequently, by analyzing pedigrees of the hybrids used in obtaining Chambourcin (Figure 2), we traced back its genealogy several generations including numerous grapevine selections from interspecific crosses, mainly Seibel hybrids, involving V. vinifera and American wild grapes such as V. berlandieri, V. rupestris, V. aestivalis, V. cinerea, V. lincecumii, and V. labrusca. Hence, our analysis shows that the genetic background of Chambourcin includes seven species. From a more quantitative perspective, we found high ancestry of V. vinifera (about 41%), followed by V. berlandieri (about 28%), V. rupestris (about 19%) and to a lesser extent, other American wild vines (V. lincecumii, ~6%, V. aestivalis and V. cinerea, both ~2%, V. labrusca, ~1.6%, Table 1). Interestingly, the V. vinifera ancestry we estimated is in line with previous literature reports that led to a similar estimate considering the reported confidence interval using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) [36].
The significant content of the V. berlandieri and V. rupestris genomes in Chambourcin explains the considerable resistance of this variety to the two main phytopaties affecting grapevines, i.e., downy mildew and powdery mildew (Table 2). Moreover, the low genetic contribution of V. labrusca explains the lack of the distinctive labrusca taste in the Chambourcin wine, that is generally regarded as a quality wine [28], present also in French tables. While the hybrid is generally considered a late-ripening grape in North America and other cold-weather areas of the globe, in South Italy, it can be harvested in early September when the fruit fully matures with good sugar content (°Brix > 21%). In our experience its resistance to grapevine diseases is high or very high depending on the summer weather conditions, slightly more sensitive to powdery mildew than downy mildew, but also in this case no more than two sprayings with phytosanitary products allowed in organic agriculture are required to control disease spread excellently, compared to the much more frequent treatments required for V. vinifera. In certain years, we found that Chambourcin produced well and abundantly in the absence of any spraying. Another characteristic of this hybrid cultivar is its cold-hardiness that allows its cultivation in North American regions, where, due to the conditions of early frost and freezing events viticulture, this was previously impossible. However, South Italy very rarely experiences seriously cold winters and thus, this feature is not one of the main aspects we considered in choice of this cultivar in this study applied to a Mediterranean environment.
Not less importantly, the high content of V. berlandieri and V. rupestris ancestries in its parentage, considering the high resistance of these American vines to Phylloxera vastatrix (Table 2), suggests that Chambourcin can be produced on own-rooted vines, even though the potential benefits of grafting it to improved rootstocks is well recognized [38,39]. In this regard, it should be noticed that the yield (11.6 kg grape/vine), in the case of own-rooted Chambourcin vines, was reported to be comparable to that recorded for grafted vines [40]. Therefore, viticulture, thanks to hybrid grapes like Chambourcin, could become more sustainable not only from an environmental point of view (avoiding chemicals accumulation in soil) but also considering a merely economic perspective, as it does not necessarily require grafted vines. Avoiding the grafting procedure (that implies costs) would lead to a more economically sustainable viticulture, and it could lead to more convenient obtainment of grape for wine or juice, not only in Mediterranean Europe but also in developing countries. Moreover, when grapevines are grafted to a rootstock, that is typically a vine resistant to Phylloxera vastatrix but not a productive variety, and the vine is damaged (during particularly cold winters or following fires—very common in South Italy—or other destructive events) below the graft union, the rootstock and not the desired grape cultivar will send up new growth the next year. Conversely, if a grapevine is planted on its own roots, as can be done with the Chambourcin [40], and killed to the ground level, the next year the desired cultivar will reappear and the vineyard can be back in production soon [41].

3.2. Wine Analysis

We wondered whether Chambourcin wine produced in South Italy had a different heavy-metal content with respect to more traditional V. vinifera wines, produced under similar conditions by small family-run wineries. We wanted, indeed, to verify this aspect especially considering the rumours on lower quality/unhealthy wines spread in the last decades/centuries probably mainly for protecting V. vinifera’s growing tradition and not because of a real concern about potential side effects that hybrid grapes could provoke to human health [42]. On the other side, American wild grapes have been part of the human diet since antiquity among the North American Natives [43], and thus, one would be inclined to imagine that the hostilities of last century in European countries depended more on economic and protectionist reasons than real and scientifically proven suspicions of improbable wild American grape toxicity [42]. Hence, we also compared the Chambourcin wine to two other homemade V. vinifera wines (a red wine and a rosè wine) produced in South Italy [16]. All wine samples were evaluated by ICP-OES analysis, leading to the detection of metals in the quantities indicated in Table 3, which shows the metal contents as ppb values. In general, we observed higher levels of Fe, Al, Mn, Zn than Be, Cd, Hg, Sb and Cr VI that are present in amounts lower than the detection limit.
The analysis shows similar results for the quantification of various metals for Chambourcin in comparison to the two homemade V. vinifera wines [16] and in general, no significant differences could be detected between hybrid and European grape wines. Interestingly, Pb concentration was much lower than the limit of 200 ppb recommended in wine [34], suggesting that the likely wine health benefits in our homemade wines are not outweighed by heavy metal adverse effects [34]. Since Cu is largely used in phytosanitary treatments, we wondered if the concentration of this metal was higher in V. vinifera wines than our no-spray grape-based wine. In our analysis, Cu levels were very low and comparable in both Chambourcin and V. vinifera red wines. In fact, the metal present on V. vinifera grape skins (due to spraying operations) can be partially eliminated in the lees during the fermentation process in the form of insoluble salts, thanks to complexation with organic compounds like polyphenols and tannins that effectively cause Cu precipitation. However, in the case of Chambourcin, no phytosanitary treatment was conducted at all on this resistant grape and consequently, no Cu was expected on Chambourcin grape skins and wine. On the other hand, significantly higher Cu amounts are found in V. vinifera rosè wine due to the process for its production lacking any fermentation on lees and consequent Cu precipitation as insoluble products. However, the Cu levels in all three homemade wines are in line with (or lower than) other analytical data of homemade wines [44], and can be considered very low when compared to industrial wines that often have much higher Cu levels (>100 ppb [45]) due to the direct must addition with copper as reported in the literature.

4. Conclusions

With this work, we suggest the use of hybrid grapes, and in particular Chambourcin, for more sustainable wine/juice production in Mediterranean areas of Europe like South Italy. Presently, only V. vinifera grapes are used for wine production in the area under investigation.
We found that the high contents of Vitis berlandieri and Vitis rupestris in Chambourcin pedigree correlate with its high resistance to some of the main diseases affecting grapes in South Italy. Moreover, the chemical analysis we conducted on a Chambourcin wine produced in an experimental vineyard in South Italy with no phytosanitary treatment did not show significant dissimilarities in terms of metal contents when compared to European grape traditional wines, with the main evident difference consisting in that these latter are produced with larger use of chemicals for the necessary and frequent phytosanitary treatments, with a consequent significant impact on the environment [16], while in our experience, in South Italy, Chambourcin can produce well with 0–2 treatments yearly, using products allowed by organic agriculture.
It is worth noting that while numerous efforts have been made around the globe to produce quality wines from hybrid grapes including Chambourcin, several countries banned the production of wine for commercial purposes from varieties different from Vitis vinifera, thus excluding resistant cultivars whose cultivation, in our opinion, should be reconsidered in Mediterranean countries considering the environmental (decreasing the chemicals usage in viticulture preventing contamination of the agricultural soils) and cost (cheap vine propagation by cuttings of Phylloxera-resistant cultivars) benefits of hybrid grapes. In summary, growing Chambourcin and other resistant grapevines in South Italy could lead to environmentally and economically sustainable production of quality wine and grape juice, with a greater respect for habitats and in particular aquatic life.

Author Contributions

All authors (V.R., U.C., G.D.P., D.N.) contributed equally to the conceptualization, literature collection, samples analysis, writing, data analysis, and editing and reviewing of the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Carl Camper, Montana—US for the precious information on Chambourcin and other hybrid grapes publicly provided at http://chateaustripmine.info/ (accessed on 29 September 2021) and Hugh Allen MA (Cantab) (Wells, UK) for useful discussion and editing the manuscript for English style and logical flow. This review was partially written by the authors in smart-working mode (activated by University of Naples Federico II-UNINA) during the COVID-19 crisis. We dedicate this study to all the healthcare workers and to all the people who suffered and still suffer around the world because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sustainability 13 12472 g001 550
Figure 1. Grape bunch and leaves of Chambourcin cultivated in South Italy (photo courtesy of the Roviello family).
Figure 1. Grape bunch and leaves of Chambourcin cultivated in South Italy (photo courtesy of the Roviello family).
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Figure 2. Parentage diagram for Chambourcin cultivar. This diagram was realized starting from the parentage diagram available for Seibel 6468, Subereux, and Plantet at the link http://chateaustripmine.info/Parentage.htm (accessed on 29 September 2021). For more details see Section 2.1.
Figure 2. Parentage diagram for Chambourcin cultivar. This diagram was realized starting from the parentage diagram available for Seibel 6468, Subereux, and Plantet at the link http://chateaustripmine.info/Parentage.htm (accessed on 29 September 2021). For more details see Section 2.1.
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Table
Table 1. Estimated * Vitis content in Chambourcin grape variety and its parents J.S. 11-369 and Plantet.
Table 1. Estimated * Vitis content in Chambourcin grape variety and its parents J.S. 11-369 and Plantet.
Grape Variety% V. vinifera% V. berlandieri% V. rupestris% V. lincecumii% V. aestivalis% V. cinerea% V. labrusca
(Chambourcin)
J.S. 26-205		41.4062528.12518.756.251.9531251.9531251.5625
J.S. 11-36957.81256.25256.250.781250.781253.125
(Plantet)
Seibel 5455		255012.56.253.1253.1250
* percentages were calculated on the basis of the contributions given by the seven Vitis species to the overall Chambourcin pedigree according to the parentage diagram of Figure 2.
Table
Table 2. The germplasm for resistance [37] utilized for the obtainment of Chambourcin.
Table 2. The germplasm for resistance [37] utilized for the obtainment of Chambourcin.
Resistance/Tolerance
to		V. viniferaV. berlandieriV. rupestrisV. lincecumiiV. aestivalisV. cinereaV. labrusca
abiotic stress:
chlorosis		xx
phytopaties: Plasmopara viticola (downy mildew) xxxxxx
phytopaties:
Erysiphe necator (powdery mildew)		 x xxx
Insects:
Phylloxera vastatrix		 xx x
Table
Table 3. Analysis of homemade Chambourcin wine in comparison to two reference V. vinifera wine samples [16]: listed metal contents are means of triplicate determinations (as ppb) ± SD.
Table 3. Analysis of homemade Chambourcin wine in comparison to two reference V. vinifera wine samples [16]: listed metal contents are means of triplicate determinations (as ppb) ± SD.
MetalRed Wine (μg/L)Rosè Wine (μg/L)Chambourcin (μg/L)
Al55.7 ± 0.8104 ± 358.1 ± 0.6
As12.1 ± 0.58.4 ± 0.311.8 ± 0.7
Be<5<5<5
Cd<5<5<5
Cr tot15.3 ± 0.3<55.5 ± 0.4
Cu5.76 ± 0.0417.8 ± 0.26.96 ± 0.29
Fe705 ± 10258 ± 71097 ± 36
Hg<5<5<5
Mn70.4 ± 0.650.7 ± 0.4203 ± 13
Ni37.7 ± 1.4<525.9 ± 0.7
Pb<5<56.8 ± 0.1
Se20.5 ± 0.316.9 ± 0.515.8 ± 0.3
Tl<5<5<5
V<5<5<5
Zn21.6 ± 0.237.4 ± 0.5194 ± 12
Cr VI<5<5<5
Sb<5<5<5
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Roviello, V.; Caruso, U.; Dal Poggetto, G.; Naviglio, D. Hybrid Grapes for a Sustainable Viticulture in South Italy: Parentage Diagram Analysis and Metal Assessment in a Homemade Wine of Chambourcin Cultivar. Sustainability 2021, 13, 12472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212472

AMA Style

Roviello V, Caruso U, Dal Poggetto G, Naviglio D. Hybrid Grapes for a Sustainable Viticulture in South Italy: Parentage Diagram Analysis and Metal Assessment in a Homemade Wine of Chambourcin Cultivar. Sustainability. 2021; 13(22):12472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212472

Chicago/Turabian Style

Roviello, Valentina, Ugo Caruso, Giovanni Dal Poggetto, and Daniele Naviglio. 2021. "Hybrid Grapes for a Sustainable Viticulture in South Italy: Parentage Diagram Analysis and Metal Assessment in a Homemade Wine of Chambourcin Cultivar" Sustainability 13, no. 22: 12472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212472

APA Style

Roviello, V., Caruso, U., Dal Poggetto, G., & Naviglio, D. (2021). Hybrid Grapes for a Sustainable Viticulture in South Italy: Parentage Diagram Analysis and Metal Assessment in a Homemade Wine of Chambourcin Cultivar. Sustainability, 13(22), 12472. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212472

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