Circle in Space—Space in Circle: A Study of Ratio between Open Space and Built-Up Area in Historical Circular Objects
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Categories of the Selected Circular Objects and Geometrical Data in Morphospace Analysis
2.2. Historical Analysis of the Circular Spaces
2.2.1. Neolithic
2.2.2. Antiquity
2.2.3. Middle Ages
2.2.4. Islamic Style
2.2.5. Renaissance
2.2.6. Baroque
2.2.7. Contemporary Era and Circle City Idea
3. Results and Discussion
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
BUA | Built-Up Area |
OS | Open Space |
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Site Name | Dating | Type | Coordinates | Diameter | Inner D | Area | Jam Area | % of Jam | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | GöbekliTepe | 10,000 BC | Sacral Objects | 37°13′23″ N 38°55′21″ E | 20 m | 14 m | 312 m2 | 146 m2 | 46.79 |
2. | Stonehenge | 3000–2000 BC | Earthworks | 51°10′44″ N 01°49′34″ W | 110 m | 109 m | 9500 m2 | 9354 m2 | 98.46 |
3. | Mari | 2900–1759 BC | Settlements | 34°55′04″ N 40°88′91″ E | 2000 m | 1416 m | 3,140,000 m2 | 1,574,289 m2 | 50.14 |
4. | Arkaim | 2000–1600 BC | Settlements | 52°38′57″ N 59°34′17″ E | 150 m | 63 m | 16,917 m2 | 3100 m2 | 18.32 |
5. | Mycenean Grave Circle B | 1700 BC | Sacral Objects | 37°43′51″ N 22°45′23″ E | 33 m | 28 m | 855 m2 | 627 m2 | 73.33 |
6. | Varro’s Aviary at Casinum (Tholos) | 64 BC | Parks–Gardens | 41°29′24″ N 13°48′50″ E | 14 m | 9 m | 223 m2 | 69 m2 | 30.94 |
7. | Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome | 31–28 BC | Sacral Objects | 41°54′22″ N 12°28′35″ E | 84.5 m | 71 m | 5600 m2 | 4010 m2 | 71.61 |
8. | Teatro marittimo-Villa Hadriana | 118–138 | Circular Buildings | 41°94′24″ N 12°77′58″ E | 45 m | 35 m | 1590 m2 | 972 m2 | 61.131 |
9. | Round city of Baghdad | 766–7 | Settlements | 33°34′88″ N 44°33′53″ E | 2400 m | 1717 m | 3,492,672 m2 | 2,316,375 m2 | 66.32 |
10. | Large serdab Dar al-Khalifa, Samarra | 836 | Plazas | 34°23′05″ N 43°87′40″ E | 50 m | 0 m | 1962 m2 | 0 m2 | 0 |
11. | Tell al-Banat | 859–892 | Earthworks | 34°44′76″ N 43°80′48″ E | 170 m | 170 m | 23,584 m2 | 23,584 m2 | 100 |
12. | The Early Slavic pagan shrine in Peryn | 980–989 | Sacral Objects | 58°47′28″ N 31°27′36″ E | 35 m | 35 m | 962 m2 | 962 m2 | 100 |
13. | Studenica Monastery, Serbia | 1183–1186 | Sacral Objects | 43°29′11″ N 20°32′13″ E | 128 m | 93 m | 10,920 m2 | 6851 m2 | 62.74 |
14. | Harman Fortified Church | 1240 | Sacral Objects | 45°42′56″ N 25°41′06″ E | 100 m | 63 m | 6677 m2 | 3115 m2 | 46.65 |
15. | Hypnerotomachia Poliphili Island garden of Cythera | 1499 | Parks–Gardens | imagination | 1482 m | 1482 m | 1,724,114 m2 | 1,724,114 m2 | 100 |
16. | Orto Botanico di Padova | 1545 | Parks–Gardens | 45°39′12″ N 11°88′08″ E | 84 m | 64 m | 5242 m2 | 3205 m2 | 61.14 |
17. | Palmanova | 1593 | Settlements | 45°90′56″ N 13°31′00″ E | 1530 m | 1115 m | 1,835,170 m2 | 976,962 m2 | 53.24 |
18. | Parc d’Enghien | 1630–1665 | Parks–Gardens | 50°68′76″ N 04°04′73″ E | 235 m | 163 m | 41,823 m2 | 20,919 m2 | 50.042 |
19. | The Palace Garden Karlsruhe | 1731–1746 | Parks–Gardens | 49°01′38″ N 08°40′44″ E | 865 m | 589 m | 575,069 m2 | 272,250 m2 | 47.34 |
20. | Clemenswerth Palace, Sögel | 1737–1747 | Parks–Gardens | 52°83′83″ N 07°53′71″ E | 100 m | 84 m | 7850 m2 | 5550 m2 | 70.71 |
21. | Schwetzingen Palace, Schwetzingen | 1753–1770 | Parks–Gardens | 49°38′37″ N 08°56′80″ E | 330 m | 206 m | 85,476 m2 | 33,299 m2 | 38.96 |
22. | ErylouHua’an tuloi, Hua’an, Zhangzhou, Fujian, China | 1770 | Settlements | 25°01′25″ N 117°41′12″ E | 73 m | 27 m | 4231 m2 | 572 m2 | 13.52 |
23. | Șarlota (Charlottenburg) | 1771 | Settlements | 45°97′86″ N 21°51′91″ E | 417 m | 326 m | 136,639 m2 | 83,321 m2 | 60.98 |
24. | Circleville, Ohio | 1836 | Earthworks | 39°35′58″ N 82°56′40″ W | 327 m | 184 m | 81,513 m2 | 26,770 m2 | 32.84 |
25. | Queen Mary’s Gardens Regent’s Park, London | 1930s | Parks–Gardens | 51°52′77″ N 00°15′36″ W | 333 m | 287 m | 87,516 m2 | 64,868 m2 | 74.12 |
26. | Brøndby Garden City, Copenhagen | 1964 | Allotments | 55°38′13″N 12°23′58″ E | 120 m | 99 m | 11,200 m2 | 7720 m2 | 68.93 |
27. | Kikar Hamedina, Tel Aviv | 1970 | Plazas | 32°05′12″ N 34°47′23″ E | 330 m | 255 m | 86,484 m2 | 51,250 m2 | 59.26 |
28. | Bublik Circular House, Moscow | 1972 | Circular Buildings | 55°42′26″ N 37°28′16″ E | 180 m | 155 m | 25,447 m2 | 18,869 m2 | 74.15 |
29. | Maheshwari Udyan, Mumbai | contemporary | Parks–Gardens | 19°02′67″ N 72°85′54″ E | 150 m | 104 m | 20,100 m2 | 8414 m2 | 41.86 |
30. | Gartenverein zur Sonnenblume Kamp-Lintfort | contemporary | Allotments | 51°49′15″ N 06°56′54″ E | 190 m | 144 m | 28,398 m2 | 16,376 m2 | 57.67 |
31. | Gasholder Park, London | 2013 | Parks–Gardens | 51°32′13″ N 0°07′41″ W | 45 m | 34 m | 1590 m2 | 927 m2 | 58.30 |
32. | Navy Yard Central Green, Philadelphia | 2015 | Parks–Gardens | 39°89′38″ N 75°17′12″ W | 113 m | 81 m | 10,020 m2 | 5192 m2 | 51.82 |
33. | Apple Campus 2, Cupertino | 2017 | Circular Buildings | 37°33′50″ N 122°00′90″ W | 461 m | 348 m | 167,000 m2 | 95,000 m2 | 56.89 |
34. | Bird enclosure earthwork at Kickapoo river, Wisconsin | Pre-Columbian era | Earthworks | 43°28′32″ N 90°41′38″ W | 118 m | 118 m | 10,936 m2 | 10,936 m2 | 100 |
35. | Portsmouth Earthworks Group C, Kentucky | Pre-Columbian era | Earthworks | 38°44′09″ N 82°54′12″ W | 424 m | 424 m | 141,196 m2 | 141,196 m2 | 100 |
36. | Upper Midwest Circle City | contemporary | Parks–Gardens | 43°04′00″ N 89°24′00″ W | 500 km | 187,753 km2 | km2 |
Types of Circular Objects | Site Name | Dating |
---|---|---|
Objects with a Total Diameter Smaller than 300 m | ||
Parks–Gardens | Varro’s Aviary at Casinum (Tholos) | 64 BC |
Maheshwari Udyan, Mumbai | contemporary | |
Orto Botanico di Padova | 1545 | |
Parc d’Enghien | 1630–1665 | |
Clemenswerth Palace, Sögel | 1737–1747 | |
Gasholder Park, London | 2013 | |
Navy Yard Central Green, Philadelphia | 2015 | |
Settlements | Arkaim | 2000–1600 BC |
ErylouHua’an tuloi, Hua’an, Zhangzhou, Fujian, China | 1770 | |
Earthworks | Stonehenge | 3000–2000 BC |
Bird enclosure earthwork at Kickapoo river, Wisconsin | Pre-Columbian era | |
Tell al-Banat | 859–892 | |
Sacral Objects | GöbekliTepe | 10,000 BC |
Mycenean Grave Circle B | 1700 BC | |
Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome | 31–28 BC | |
The Early Slavic pagan shrine in Peryn | 980–989 | |
Studenica Monastery, Serbia | 1183–1186 | |
Harman Fortified Church | 1240 | |
Circular Buildings | Teatro marittimo-Villa Hadriana | 118–138 |
Bublik Circular House, Moscow | 1972 | |
Allotments | Brøndby Garden City, Copenhagen | 1964 |
Gartenverein zur Sonnenblume Kamp-Lintfort | contemporary | |
Plazas | Large serdab Dar al-Khalifa, Samarra | 836 |
Objects with a Total Diameter Larger than 300 m | ||
Parks–Gardens | Schwetzingen Palace, Schwetzingen | 1753–1770 |
Queen Mary’s Gardens Regent’s Park, London | 1930s | |
The Palace Garden Karlsruhe | 1731–1746 | |
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, Island garden of Cythera | 1499 | |
Settlements | Șarlota (Charlottenburg) | 1771 |
Palmanova | 1593 | |
Mari | 2900–1759 BC | |
Round city of Baghdad | 766–7 | |
Earthworks | Circleville, Ohio | 1836 |
Portsmouth Earthworks Group C, Kentucky | Pre-Columbian era | |
Sacral Objects | - | - |
Circular Buildings | Apple Campus 2, Cupertino | 2017 |
Allotments | - | - |
Plazas | Kikar Hamedina, Tel Aviv | 1970 |
Dating | Site Name | Coordinates | |
---|---|---|---|
1. | 10,000 BC | GöbekliTepe | 37°13′23″ N 38°55′21″ E |
2. | 3000–2000 BC | Stonehenge | 51°10′44″ N 01°49′34″ W |
3. | 2900–1759 BC | Mari | 34°55′04″ N 40°88′91″ E |
4. | 2000–1600 BC | Arkaim | 52°38′57″ N 59°34′17″ E |
5. | 1700 BC | Mycenean Grave Circle B | 37°43′51″ N 22°45′23″ E |
6. | 64 BC | Varro’s Aviary at Casinum (Tholos) | 41°29′24″ N 13°48′50″ E |
7. | 31–28 BC | Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome | 41°54′22″ N 12°28′35″ E |
8. | 118–138 | Teatro marittimo-Villa Hadriana | 41°94′24″ N 12°77′58″ E |
9. | 766–7 | Round city of Baghdad | 33°34′88″ N 44°33′53″ E |
10. | 836 | Large serdab Dar al-Khalifa, Samarra | 34°23′05″ N 43°87′40″ E |
11. | 859–892 | Tell al-Banat | 34°44′76″ N 43°80′48″ E |
12. | 980–989 | The Early Slavic pagan shrine in Peryn | 58°47′28″ N 31°27′36″ E |
13. | 1183–1186 | Studenica Monastery, Serbia | 43°29′11″ N 20°32′13″ E |
14. | 1240 | Harman Fortified Church | 45°42′56″ N 25°41′06″ E |
15. | 1499 | Hypnerotomachia PoliphiliIsland garden of Cythera | imagination |
16. | 1545 | Orto Botanico di Padova | 45°39′12″ N 11°88′08″ E |
17. | 1593 | Palmanova | 45°90′56″ N 13°31′00″ E |
18. | 1630–1665 | Parc d’Enghien | 50°68′76″ N 04°04′73″ E |
19. | 1731–1746 | The Palace Garden Karlsruhe | 49°01′38″ N 08°40′44″ E |
20. | 1737–1747 | Clemenswerth Palace, Sögel | 52°83′83″ N 07°53′71″ E |
21. | 1753–1770 | Schwetzingen Palace, Schwetzingen | 49°38′37″ N 08°56′80″ E |
22. | 1770 | ErylouHua’an tuloi, Hua’an, Zhangzhou, Fujian, China | 25°01′25″ N 117°41′12″ E |
23. | 1771 | Șarlota (Charlottenburg) | 45°97′86″ N 21°51′91″ E |
24. | 1836 | Circleville, Ohio | 39°35′58″ N 82°56′40″ W |
25. | 1930s | Queen Mary’s Gardens Regent’s Park, London | 51°52′77″ N 00°15′36″ W |
26. | 1964 | Brøndby Garden City, Copenhagen | 55°38′13″ N 12°23′58″ E |
27. | 1970 | Kikar Hamedina, Tel Aviv | 32°05′12″ N 34°47′23″ E |
28. | 1972 | Bublik Circular House, Moscow | 55°42′26″ N 37°28′16″ E |
29. | contemporary | Maheshwari Udyan, Mumbai | 19°02′67″ N 72°85′54″ E |
30. | contemporary | Gartenverein zur Sonnenblume Kamp-Lintfort | 51°49′15″ N 06°56′54″ E |
31. | contemporary | Upper Midwest Circle City | 43°04′00″ N 89°24′00″ W |
32. | 2013 | Gasholder Park, London | 51°32′13″ N 0°07′41″ W |
33. | 2015 | Navy Yard Central Green, Philadelphia | 39°89′38″ N 75°17′12″ W |
34. | 2017 | Apple Campus 2, Cupertino | 37°33′50″ N 122°00′90″ W |
35. | Pre-Columbian era | Bird enclosure earthwork at Kickapoo river, Wisconsin | 43°28′32″ N 90°41′38″ W |
36. | Pre-Columbian era | Portsmouth Earthworks Group C, Kentucky | 38°44′09″N 82°54′12″ W |
Types of Circular Objects | Site Name | Dating | % of Jam | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Objects with a Total Diameter Smaller than 300 m | ||||
Parks–Gardens | Varro’s Aviary at Casinum (Tholos) | 64 BC | 30.94 | |
Maheshwari Udyan, Mumbai | contemporary | 41.86 | ||
Orto Botanico di Padova | 1545 | 61.14 | ||
Parc d’Enghien | 1630–1665 | 50.042 | ||
Clemenswerth Palace, Sögel | 1737–1747 | 70.71 | ||
Gasholder Park, London | 2013 | 58.30 | ||
Navy Yard Central Green, Philadelphia | 2015 | 51.82 | ||
Settlements | Arkaim | 2000–1600 BC | 18.32 | |
ErylouHua’an tuloi, Hua’an, Zhangzhou, Fujian, China | 1770 | 13.52 | ||
Earthworks | Stonehenge | 3000–2000 BC | 98.46 | |
Bird enclosure earthwork at Kickapoo river, Wisconsin | Pre-Columbian era | 100 | ||
Tell al-Banat | 859–892 | 100 | ||
Sacral Objects | Göbekli Tepe | 10,000 BC | 46.79 | |
Mycenean Grave Circle B | 1700 BC | 73.33 | ||
Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome | 31–28 BC | 71.61 | ||
The Early Slavic pagan shrine in Peryn | 980–989 | 100 | ||
Studenica Monastery, Serbia | 1183–1186 | 62.74 | ||
Harman Fortified Church | 1240 | 46.65 | ||
Circular Buildings | Teatro marittimo-Villa Hadriana | 118–138 | 61.131 | |
Bublik Circular House, Moscow | 1972 | 74.15 | ||
Allotments | Brøndby Garden City, Copenhagen | 1964 | 68.93 | |
Gartenverein zur Sonnenblume Kamp-Lintfort | contemporary | 57.67 | ||
Plazas | Large serdab Dar al-Khalifa, Samarra | 836 | 0 | |
Objects with a Total Diameter Larger than 300 m | ||||
Parks–Gardens | Schwetzingen Palace, Schwetzingen | 1753–1770 | 38.96 | |
Queen Mary’s Gardens Regent’s Park, London | 1930s | 74.12 | ||
The Palace Garden Karlsruhe | 1731–1746 | 47.34 | ||
Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, Island garden of Cythera | 1499 | 100 | ||
Settlements | Șarlota (Charlottenburg) | 1771 | 60.98 | |
Palmanova | 1593 | 53.24 | ||
Mari | 2900–1759 BC | 50.14 | ||
Round city of Baghdad | 766–7 | 66.32 | ||
Earthworks | Circleville, Ohio | 1836 | 32.84 | |
Portsmouth Earthworks Group C, Kentucky | Pre-Columbian era | 100 | ||
Sacral Objects | - | - | - | |
Circular Buildings | Apple Campus 2, Cupertino | 2017 | 56.89 | |
Allotments | - | - | - | |
Plazas | Kikar Hamedina, Tel Aviv | 1970 | 59.26 | |
Circle City | ||||
Parks–Gardens | Upper Midwest Circle City | contemporary | / |
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Jović, B.S.; Čučaković, A.A.; Grbić, M.N. Circle in Space—Space in Circle: A Study of Ratio between Open Space and Built-Up Area in Historical Circular Objects. Sustainability 2021, 13, 4662. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094662
Jović BS, Čučaković AA, Grbić MN. Circle in Space—Space in Circle: A Study of Ratio between Open Space and Built-Up Area in Historical Circular Objects. Sustainability. 2021; 13(9):4662. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094662
Chicago/Turabian StyleJović, Biljana Stanislav, Aleksandar Acim Čučaković, and Mihailo Nebojsa Grbić. 2021. "Circle in Space—Space in Circle: A Study of Ratio between Open Space and Built-Up Area in Historical Circular Objects" Sustainability 13, no. 9: 4662. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13094662