Integrated Approach for Carbon Sequestration and Wastewater Treatment Using Algal–Bacterial Consortia: Opportunities and Challenges
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- (a)
- Reduced use of non-renewable energy sources including fossil-fuels.
- (b)
- Efficient use of low carbon renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear, as well as carbon-neutral alternative energy sources such as biomass.
- (c)
- Adoption of post-treatment process such as carbon-capture and storage (CCS) technology.
2. CO2 Capture and Fixation by Microalgae
3. Microalgae-Based Wastewater Treatment
4. Factors Influencing Algal Cultivation in Wastewater and CO2 Uptake
4.1. Algal Strains
4.2. Mode of Microalgal Growth
4.3. Nutrients
4.4. Temperature
4.5. pH
4.6. CO2 Concentration
4.7. Composition of Flue Gas
4.8. Light
5. Microalgae in Wastewater Treatment
Synergistic Effect of Algal–Bacterial Co-Cultivation in Wastewater
6. Algal Cultivation Systems and Possibilities
6.1. Open Pond Hybrid Design
6.2. Photobioreactor Design for CO2 Fixation
- Efficient collection of solar radiation due to narrow gauge of tubes or channels.
- High areal yields because of high culture densities.
- Very low contamination risk as they are efficient in maintaining sterility.
- High biomass yield ensured by proper nutrient mixing and better CO2 conversion.
- Often easy to operate with process monitoring and control systems.
6.3. Merits and Demerits
7. Challenges and Limitations
7.1. Algal–Bacterial Co-Cultivation
7.2. Efficient CO2 Sparging and Mixing Systems
7.3. Heavy Metals and Other Toxicants in the Effluents
7.4. Need for Efficient Algae Harvesting Techniques
7.5. Post-Harvest Preservation and Storage
8. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Microalgae Species | CO2 Concentration (%) | CO2 Fixation Rate (g L−1 day−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Chlamydomonas sp. | 15 | - | [15] |
Chlorella sp. | 40 | - | [16] |
0.03 | 1.62 | [17] | |
15 | - | [18] | |
15 | 0.46 | [19] | |
5 | 0.7 | [20] | |
- | 1.38 | [21] | |
Chlorella kessleri | 18 | 0.16 | [22] |
Chlorella (marine) | 2–15 | 2.14–4.69 | [23] |
Chlorella pyrenoidosa SJTU-2 | 5–50 | 0.029–0.71 | [24] |
Chlorella vulgaris | 10 | 0.25 | [10] |
2 | 0.43 | [25] | |
18 | - | [22] | |
Chlorococcum littorale | 20 | 0.246 | [26] |
60 | - | [27] | |
Chroococcus cohaerens | 0.03 | 0.78 | [17] |
Cyanidium caldarium | 100 | - | [28] |
Dunaliella sp. | 3 | 0.31 | [29] |
Dunaliella tertiolecta | 10 | 0.27 | [10] |
15 | 5.82 | [30] | |
Eudorina sp. | 20 | - | [16] |
Euglena gracilis | 45 | - | [31] |
Haematococcus pluvialis | 34 | 0.14 | [32] |
Microcystis aeruginosa | 15 | 0.134 | [19] |
Microcystis ichthyoblabe | 15 | 0.142 | [19] |
Nannochloris sp. | 15 | - | [33] |
Phaeodactylum tricornitum | 15 | 0.59 | [30] |
Phormidium sp. | 15 | 7.39 | [30] |
Scenedesmus sp. | 80 | - | [16] |
15 | 0.61 | [19] | |
Scenedesmus dimorphus | 0.03 | 1.27 | [17] |
Scenedesmus incrassatulus | 0.03 | 1.50 | [17] |
Scenedesmus obliquus | 15 | 4.6 | [30] |
10 | 0.55 | [34] | |
10 | 0.29 | [24] | |
2.5 | 1.19 | [35] | |
18 | - | [22] | |
Synechococcus elongatus | 60 | - | [36] |
Spirulina sp. | 20 | 0.14 | [37] |
Spirulina platensis | 15 | 0.92 | [38] |
Tetraselmis sp. | 14 | - | [39] |
Nature of Effluent | Microalga | References |
---|---|---|
Agricultural run-off | Chlorella vulgaris | [91] |
Agro-industrial wastewater | [50] | |
Aquaculture wastewater | Chlorella vulgaris, Scenedesmus obliquus | [92] |
Aquaculture wastewater | Chaetoceros calcitrans, Nannochloris maculate, Tetraselmischuii | [93] |
Dairy farm wastewater | Algae consortium—Chlorella saccharophila UTEX 2911, Chlamydomonas pseudococcum UTEX 214, Scenedesmus sp. UTEX 1185 | [94] |
Digested distillery effluent | Spirulina platensis | [95] |
Food waste and municipal wastewater | Chlorella sorokiniana | [96] |
Municipal wastewater | Chlorella minutissima | [90] |
Auxenochlorella protothecoides UMN280 | [97] | |
Scenedesmus sp. AMDD | [49] | |
Palm oil mill effluent | Chlorella sorokiniana | [98] |
Chlorella sp. | [99] | |
Paper and pulp mill effluent | Oscillatoria chlorina, Scenedesmus quadricauda | [100] |
Scenedesmus sp. | [101] | |
Poultry litter anaerobic digestion effluent | Chlorella minutissima, Chlorella sorokiniana, Scenedesmus bijuga | [102] |
Sugar mill effluent | Scenedesmus obliquus | [66] |
Sweetmeat factory waste media | Scenedesmus obliquus | [103] |
Swine wastewater | Chlorella sp. | [104,105] |
Chlorella vulgaris, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlamydomonas debaryana | [106] | |
Scenedesmus sp. | [107] | |
Tannery—soak liquor | Spirulina sp., Nannochloropsis sp. | [108] |
Parameter | Relative Benefit | Remarks |
---|---|---|
Contamination risk | Raceway > PBR | Reduced or nil in PBR |
Space requirement | Raceway ~ PBR | Depends on productivity |
Water loss | Raceway > PBR | Depends on cooling system |
CO2 loss | Raceway ~ PBR | Depends on pH, alkalinity of medium |
O2 inhibition | Raceway < PBR | Often encountered in PBR |
Process control | Raceway < PBR | Better in PBR |
Biomass productivity | Raceway < PBR | 3–5 times more in PBR |
Capex and Opex | Raceway << PBR | 3–10 times cheaper in Raceways |
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Viswanaathan, S.; Perumal, P.K.; Sundaram, S. Integrated Approach for Carbon Sequestration and Wastewater Treatment Using Algal–Bacterial Consortia: Opportunities and Challenges. Sustainability 2022, 14, 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031075
Viswanaathan S, Perumal PK, Sundaram S. Integrated Approach for Carbon Sequestration and Wastewater Treatment Using Algal–Bacterial Consortia: Opportunities and Challenges. Sustainability. 2022; 14(3):1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031075
Chicago/Turabian StyleViswanaathan, Shashirekha, Pitchurajan Krishna Perumal, and Seshadri Sundaram. 2022. "Integrated Approach for Carbon Sequestration and Wastewater Treatment Using Algal–Bacterial Consortia: Opportunities and Challenges" Sustainability 14, no. 3: 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031075