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Article

Pedestrian Safety in Road Traffic in the Era of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in the Example of Szczecin

by
Katarzyna Sosik-Filipiak
1,*,
Piotr Ostrowski
2 and
Stanisław Iwan
1
1
Faculty of Engineering and Economics of Transport, Maritime University of Szczecin, 11 H. Pobożnego Str., 70-507 Szczecin, Poland
2
Institute of Political Science and Security Studies, University of Szczecin, 71-79 Krakowska Str., 71-017 Szczecin, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 11000; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411000
Submission received: 30 May 2023 / Revised: 6 July 2023 / Accepted: 10 July 2023 / Published: 13 July 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Sustainable Mobility)
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Abstract

:
Safety of road users is one of the priority tasks of state institutions and local government authorities. Compared to other EU member states, Poland is characterized by a low level of road safety. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than half of road fatalities affect vulnerable road users (VRU). Most interactions in the vehicle–VRU relationship occur in built-up areas. Limiting the public’s mobility related to the spread of the COVID-19 virus led to changes in road traffic, which was reflected in the level of safety of individual road users. As part of a clear emphasis on the issue of VRU protection, the aim of this article is to examine the level of pedestrian safety in urban space at the time of restrictions on the public’s mobility in Poland during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and after lifting the limitations, based on the example of Szczecin. The authors put forward two research hypotheses: (1) the level of road safety is influenced by the intensity and saturation of the transport network; (2) the intensity of road traffic determines the occurrence of a greater number of road accident consequences. This study analyses traffic accident data over three periods—2017–2018, 2019–2020, and 2021—to identify pedestrian safety trends. The research shows that the intensity of road traffic has a significant impact on the occurrence of road accidents. The reduced road traffic due to the movement restrictions has kept the severity of road accidents moderate. In the post-pandemic period and the gradual lifting of the mobility restrictions, the number of road accidents increased while their consequences decreased.

1. Introduction

With the increase in the total number of registered passenger vehicles in almost all European Union member states, solutions to improve the safety of individual road users are increasingly sought. So far, much attention has been focused on research on the interaction between the driver and the vehicle, which has translated into the emergence and development of automated vehicles and the technological development of cities [1,2]. The dynamic development in these areas was mainly driven by the widespread use of information and communication technologies (ICT), Internet of Things (IoT) devices, wireless sensors, M2M machine-to-machine communication protocols, big data, advanced machine learning and high-performance computing [3,4].
Currently, more and more attention is paid to the role of pedestrians in road traffic and their safety as the group of vulnerable road users that is the most exposed to the risk of death or injury [5,6,7]. In the pursuit of a sustainable transport system, the prioritisation of road users is changing, focusing on promoting walking and cycling rather than focusing on transport planning from the perspective of motorized users, as has been the case so far [8].
An important aspect in ensuring the safety of pedestrians in transport networks is the detection and recognition of pedestrians [9] and the automatic analysis of human behaviour [1]. Technological progress has resulted in the increasingly frequent use of cameras in road traffic as sensors that enable video analysis of roads and intersections [10]. Modelling human behavioural attitudes is a complex task, especially considering the restrictions implemented during the spread of the COVID-19 virus, which changed the behaviour and activity of society [11,12]. The period of the pandemic changed the approach to selected means of transport observed in the pre-pandemic period, in particular in urban areas [13].
Growing urbanization and the resulting rapid increase in the number of people in cities has resulted in a dynamic increase in the demand for travel in cities [14,15]. This poses challenges to urban transport networks and urban planning [14,16,17]. Transport supply is adjusted to demand. However, with the ever-increasing demand for transport services related to the expansion of cities, the supply is asymmetrically adjusted to it [14,16,18]. In response to the emerging and intensifying problems in cities, such as congestion, air pollution, noise, reduced physical activity, and an increase in fatalities in road accidents, solutions are sought that would support the sustainable development of cities and transport [17,19]. A user-centric approach to urban planning and transport plays an important role in making cities more liveable, thereby enhancing the quality of urban life as well as creating spaces that support the needs and aspirations of society [20]. In developed countries, there is a cultural and economic dependence on the use of vehicles as the basic means of transport. Despite the knowledge about the impact of the use of individual vehicles in cities, which is especially visible for short distances, in rapidly developing countries, patterns of planning the transport system oriented towards motorized users persist [21]. In order to encourage the use of public transport, city authorities often use a number of available tools that have a real impact on the increase in interest in these means of transport, including a discount policy. In addition, the availability of public transport and the transport network has an inseparable influence on the choice of form of transport. The choice of the means of transport can be determined by its attributes, such as travel time, walking time, cycling time, waiting time, transfer time, and cost per kilometre, and has a real impact on transport preferences [18,22]. The potential to change the perception of individual vehicles as the main means of transport and the existing parking and congestion restrictions in heavily populated cities are seen in the negative impact of motorized traffic on public health and increase the travel time of these users [19,21]. In the process of implementing the concept of sustainable mobility, it becomes important to implement active cooperation of many stakeholders, including specialists, researchers, decision-makers, activists, and others [23]. The literature indicates socio-demographic factors that influence travel preferences [22]. For this reason, it seems important to identify the needs of individual groups of transport network users from the point of view of conducting transport policies in cities. Pursuing Vision Zero and supporting the implementation of the concept of sustainable mobility has become a determinant of actions taken by the European Union and its member states. Despite the decrease in the number of road accidents, which translates into an overall improvement in road safety indicators, the consequences of road accidents remain serious, in particular for vulnerable road users. Poland has one of the highest rates of road accidents and their consequences of any EU member state. Across Europe, there has been a decrease in road traffic related to restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The restrictions on the public’s movement gave hope that the number of road accidents and their consequences would decrease.
The article presents the authors’ concept of looking at the safety of pedestrians in road traffic from the perspective of the implemented changes affecting the mobility of city dwellers. Pedestrians are the largest group of road users and are the group that is the most exposed to the consequences of road accidents. Therefore, the authors focused primarily on finding out whether the road safety is influenced by the intensity and saturation of the transport network and whether the intensity of road traffic determines the occurrence of a greater number of road accident consequences.

2. Materials and Methods

The formulated research goal for the article required literature studies and basic research. The authors used the following research methods: (a) critical analysis of the literature on the subject, which allowed for the systematisation of the knowledge about the role of pedestrians in urban transport systems. This allowed for the outlining of the theoretical basis and meaning of the topic. (b) Statistical research method used to present the trends determining road safety for the indicated periods. In order to diagnose the trends in the level of road safety, the following three periods were adopted: prior to the COVID-19 pandemic; during the pandemic, characterised by restrictions on movement in public places; and after lifting the restrictions. (c) A quantitative research method in which a questionnaire was used to collect data on the feeling of safety in road traffic during the introduction of restrictions on the public’s movement and after lifting the restrictions. The use of the questionnaire also allowed for collection and systematisation of factors determining road accidents and a change in preferences for the choice of means of transport in the analysed periods. Supplementary File S1 contains a survey questionnaire entitled Road traffic safety and mobility of the inhabitants of Szczecin and the surrounding communes.
The territorial scope of the research covered the city of Szczecin and the neighbouring municipalities. Szczecin is located in the northwestern part of Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship. This city is the centre of the industrial and tourist agglomeration of the West Pomerania region. In addition, it is an important international transport hub, connecting all types of transport modes [24].
Szczecin pursues goals for the development of sustainable urban mobility, mainly aimed at changing the travel preferences of residents. In the aspect of metropolitan transport, the focus was on facilities for vulnerable road users, in particular pedestrians, which included (a) implementation of collision-free pedestrian routes for road vehicles; (b) lowering of the curbs; (c) adapting pedestrian crossings to people with reduced mobility; (d) additional lighting of pedestrian routes; (e) and modernisation of transfer nodes and promotion of public transport [25]. The pedestrian traffic in terms of a group of vulnerable road users is high (based on the road traffic measurements carried out by the City of Szczecin [26]). The greatest intensity of pedestrian traffic occurs on weekdays, and the pedestrian traffic peak is recorded in the afternoon. Pedestrians are the group that is the most vulnerable to road accident injuries, which is why the article focuses in particular on their role in the transport system.
The article focuses on the question about the impact of the restrictions imposed following the declaration of the state of emergency due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic on the level of pedestrian safety in Szczecin’s urban space. To answer the research question, the authors compiled statistical data from the three periods—2017–2018, 2019–2020, and 2021—in order to present the trends demonstrating the state of road safety, with a particular emphasis on the safety of vulnerable road users, including pedestrians.
The state of emergency due to the COVID-19 epidemic in Poland was declared on 20 March 2020 by issuing a Regulation of the Minister of Health. Subsequently, the Council of Ministers announced another regulation on 31 March 2020 on the introduction of certain restrictions, orders, and bans in connection with the outbreak of the epidemic [27]. Pursuant to the applicable executive acts, restrictions were introduced, inter alia, in the form of rules of movement in public space. Pedestrians were ordered to keep a distance of no less than 2 m from each other. There was a limit on the number of people carried in any public transport vehicle and an obligation to cover the mouth and nose for people travelling by public transport. Movement of persons under 18 was allowed in the presence of the parent, legal guardian, or another adult person. There was a ban on using city bikes and an obligation to quarantine in cases specified by law.
In the research process, the authors used a questionnaire to collect data. The developed questionnaire of the survey “Road safety and mobility of residents of Szczecin and the surrounding municipalities” was made available to respondents via the Google browser. The scope of the research covered the inhabitants of Szczecin and the neighbouring municipalities who used the Szczecin transport network. The research was conducted from September to November 2022. The questions characterizing the respondents concerned gender, age, and municipality of residence. In the target part of the questionnaire, the respondents were asked 10 questions regarding:
  • Preferences in choosing the means of transport in the period before, during, and after the pandemic;
  • Factors determining the choice of a given type of transport;
  • Assessment of the level of road safety during the implemented restrictions related to the mobility of citizens;
  • Evaluation of the severity of hazardous VRU–driver interactions;
  • Dangerous behaviour of pedestrians and drivers [28,29].

3. Pedestrians as Road Users

Vulnerable road users in the ITS directive are defined as non-motorized road users, such as pedestrians and cyclists, as well as motorcyclists and people with disabilities or reduced mobility [30]. In addition to the regulations applicable to all road users, pedestrians, in accordance with the Vienna Convention, are subject to additional separate regulations in order to ensure their easier movement and safety [31].
In Poland, in accordance with the statutory definition contained in Art. 2 point 18 of the Act of 20 June 1997 Road Traffic Law, a pedestrian is considered to be a person outside the vehicle on the road and not performing works or activities provided for in separate regulations. A pedestrian is also considered to be a person driving, pulling, or pushing a bicycle, moped, motorcycle, pram, or wheelchair; a person moving in a wheelchair; or a person up to 10 years of age riding a bicycle under the care of an adult. In turn, according to Art. 2 point 17 of the aforementioned act, a road traffic participant is a pedestrian, a person moving with the use of a traffic assistance device, a driver, or other persons in a vehicle or on a vehicle on the road [32]. The rules for the participation of pedestrians in road traffic are also specified in the cited act. Among other things, the rules of pedestrian movement along the travel route of the road were defined as, above all, the indications for the pedestrian, who is obliged to use the sidewalk or pedestrian path—and in their absence, the roadside—and the order to use the road only in the absence of a roadside.
Compliance with the rules and the rules of road traffic specified in the regulations plays an essential role in the area of safety of pedestrians and other vulnerable road users. Using the public space with a specific road infrastructure, society encounters several conflicting or potentially conflicting points. The behaviour of road users themselves has an impact on the number of collisions and road accidents. In addition to observing the rules and regulations by pedestrians, road infrastructure plays an important role, in particular for vulnerable road users. Therefore, when planning traffic organisation or analysing road incidents involving pedestrians, special attention should be paid to these activities. Road infrastructure management was one of the key areas highlighted by the United Nations Commission on Road Safety when developing the five key pillars of the Decade of Action for Road Safety. With the development of an action plan by the relevant UN bodies, member states were obliged to implement the main objectives for road safety in their transport policies [33]. Within the framework of the works aimed at increasing road safety and the related expansion and modernisation of the transport infrastructure, it should be remembered that the pedestrian is a vulnerable road traffic participant and should be the central element of the human–road–vehicle system [34]. Therefore, the analysis of traffic problems requires comprehensive knowledge of road users, whose mistakes are the main cause of most road accidents [35].
When analysing cause-and-effect relationships, one should also take into account the observation of the road environment, which as one of the factors may directly or indirectly affect the form of a road accident, its course, and the subsequent result, often ending tragically for a vulnerable road user. When analysing cause-and-effect relationships, interactions between the pedestrian and the existing road infrastructure should be assessed.
When talking about a comprehensive, i.e., multifaceted and multi-dimensional, analysis of road safety, the very approach of road users to the way of using the rules of participation in road traffic should be taken into account. This applies to both mechanised road users and pedestrians. One of the key factors affecting the level of road safety is the low level of education in the field of safety [36,37,38]. This aspect is important because it is estimated that about 90% of road accidents in the world are caused by human errors [39,40].
Based on the evaluation of the National Road Safety Program 2013–2020 carried out in Poland by experts and scientific communities in the field of road safety, recommendations for implementation of corrective mechanisms for the state of road safety in Poland were proposed. A group of experts comprehensively addressed the state of road safety in Poland in recent years, noticing their deficit areas. One of the key recommendations is to increase the emphasis on road safety education in schools. In the area of vulnerable road users’ safety, these would include [41]:
  • Construction of modern and safe road infrastructure with a particular emphasis on the needs of vulnerable road users;
  • Changes to the rights and obligations of pedestrians;
  • Increasing financial resources for road safety, including financial strengthening of road safety and ensuring stable sources of this financing;
  • Sorting out the issue of roads, including, inter alia, the problem of “a clutter of road signs” and the legitimacy of using the markings;
  • Development and dissemination of the so-called directory of good practices in priority management of speed and pedestrian crossings;
  • Return to the discussion on the issue of legal changes in the scope of rights and obligations of pedestrians in road traffic;
  • Introduction of liability of public road managers for their incorrect marking.
Expert recommendations can be divided into two groups. The first covers the area of increasing the financial outlays necessary to build modern road infrastructure, in particular in order to increase the safety of vulnerable road users taking into account, inter alia, the elderly. The second group is related to the problem of the poor condition of the road infrastructure, including the problem of allocation of road markings in Poland and the arrangement of legislative matters related to the rights and obligations of pedestrians.
There is no doubt that the state of road safety in Poland depends on construction of modern road infrastructure that meets European standards. The analysis of all available statistical data covering the number of road accidents, collisions, fatalities, and injured persons clearly shows that the financial outlays for the modernisation and construction of new road infrastructures have a significant impact on improving road safety.
Based on the example of Szczecin, the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, the general level of road safety is improving. The statistical data on the number of road accidents and their consequences in Szczecin in the period from 2017 to 2021 are presented in Figure 1. Until the implementation of restrictions on the public’s mobility related to the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, a continuing trend of moderate fluctuations in the number of road accidents and their consequences was observed. During the pandemic period, which is the time of imposed restrictions leading to a reduction in the number of trips made by the public, the number of road accidents and their consequences decreased. In 2021, when some of the implemented solutions related to the spread of the pandemic were phased out, the total number of road accidents increased. However, the growth rate of the consequences of road accidents slowed down.
The most common types of road accidents in Szczecin occurred in the analysed period through the collision of vehicles (frontal, side, or rear), followed by collisions with pedestrians (data from the Regional Police Headquarters in Szczecin). The state of safety of vulnerable road users, including mainly pedestrians, is affected by improper designation of pedestrian crossings and the location of public transport stops. Another problem is the so-called “clutter of road signs”, i.e., a large number of signs causing information chaos for the driver or the occurrence of mutually exclusive signs. This problem is observed not only in Szczecin but also throughout the country. The conclusions are confirmed by the statistical data for the last five years, covering the number of road accidents involving pedestrians in Szczecin in the years 2017–2021, presented in Table 1.
The presented data show that most road accidents involving pedestrians occur at pedestrian crossings. A pedestrian crossing is a special place, dedicated to pedestrians in order for them to safely move on a public road, marked in a special way with vertical and horizontal signs. However, the presented data show that it is the most dangerous place, where the largest number of accidents occur.
Currently, urban priorities are focused on drivers, then on pedestrians [43]. Therefore, setting the priority of traffic lights for drivers has a negative impact on pedestrian safety due to the waiting time for the opportunity to cross. Pedestrian behaviour at intersections in residential and industrial areas is unsatisfactory [44]. Wide median strips play an important role in increasing the level of safety at pedestrian crossings [45].
For the purpose of assessing the safety of vulnerable road users, mainly pedestrians, in addition to the above-mentioned elements, other determinants of road accidents should be analysed, including:
  • Traffic intensity;
  • Hours of movement of road users;
  • Time of day and year;
  • Weather conditions.
According to the statistical data, the frequency of the transport network with both drivers and pedestrians has an impact on the number of road incidents. The greater the traffic intensity, especially in the morning and afternoon (peak periods of movement of traffic participants to and from work), the more frequent the accidents and road collisions. In the period before and after the pandemic, road accidents in the Voivodeship most often occurred between 1:00 p.m. and 7:00 p.m. and between 7:00–8:00 a.m. As a result, the number of road accidents is influenced by the volume of traffic, and their consequences are people being killed and injured. It can therefore be concluded that the lower the saturation and frequency of traffic, the lower the number of accidents and road collisions. This hypothesis is confirmed by the data presented in Table 2, which presents the number of road accidents on particular days of the week in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship from 2017 to 2021. The largest number of accidents occurred before the pandemic, during the pandemic, and in the post-pandemic period on weekdays. The number of road accidents did not peak at weekends.
In the West Pomeranian Voivodeship, road accidents involving pedestrians most often occurred on weekdays in the analysed periods. In the pre-pandemic period, the peak of road accidents involving pedestrians occurred in the morning from 6:00 to 8:00 a.m. and in the afternoon from 3:00 to 7:00 p.m. During the pandemic period, the peak of road accidents involving pedestrians fell between 4:00 and 7:00 p.m., while in the post-pandemic period, the peak of road accidents was observed in the morning and afternoon [42].

4. Results of the Quantitative Research

The questionnaire was completed by 231 people, which allowed for the formulation of conclusions regarding the entire population of people living in Szczecin and the neighbouring municipalities who were using the municipal transport system. The study was conducted on a representative group. Due to the important role of the socio-demographic characteristics in the perception of the transport network and available transport services, the characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 3 below.
When examining the change in the perception of the state of road safety for vulnerable road users depending on the intensity of road traffic dictated by the implemented travel restrictions, it is important to know the preferences of choice of means of transport and the factors determining this choice. Before the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the majority of respondents chose public transport as their main means of transport—48.1%—followed by individual vehicles—43.7% (Figure 2). Few people used more environmentally friendly mobility options—around 6.5% were pedestrians or cyclists in the survey.
Figure 3 shows the choice of means of transport before the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic by (1) gender, (2) age, and (3) place of residence. The results of the research indicate that more women chose public transport as opposed to choosing an individual vehicle as their main mode of transport. Young people were more often interested in public transport. The literature shows that young people are less likely to hold a driving licence, which is a restriction on the use of individual vehicles [46]. In addition, people living in Szczecin used public transport more often than people living in the neighbouring municipalities. This fact can definitely be influenced by the place of residence and the related living conditions without a car and mobility without a car [47]. Thus, the availability of public transport services determines the more frequent use of public transport for people affected by transport-related social exclusion.
The main determinants of the choice of means of transport (Figure 4) were travel comfort, time, and cost. The respondents’ choice of public transport was influenced to the greatest extent by factors such as time (78%), the occurrence of traffic jams (31%), travel time (22%), travel comfort (21%), and principles of sustainable development (20%). Most often, public transport was chosen by the inhabitants of Szczecin. In the case of choosing individual transport, the decisive factors were travel comfort (75%) and travel time (70%). Due to the lack of an extensive public transport network outside Szczecin, the inhabitants of the neighbouring municipalities more often chose individual transport, thus increasing their travel comfort and, above all, the travel time.
The preferences for the means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic of the inhabitants of Szczecin and neighbouring municipalities are presented in Figure 5. The choice of the same means of transport as before the pandemic did not change for 122 respondents. The largest groups of people continued to travel via individual vehicles (59%), public transport (31%), taxi, and bicycle and on foot (10%). Interestingly, 44 respondents changed their main mode of travel to walking. In addition, 43 people indicated that their new main means of transport was an individual vehicle. Most respondents gave up using public transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 6 shows the choice of the means of transport by gender, age, and place of residence during the spread of the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic and the restrictions in force at that time, including restrictions on movement. No change in the choice of means of transport was observed for either women or men; the largest percentage of men used individual vehicles, and women used public transport. In addition, young people have not changed their preferences for the means of transport, which may be influenced by limited possibility of changing the way of moving, and people over 45, who most often chose an individual vehicle before the pandemic.
The research results indicate that people living in the neighbouring municipalities who more often chose to travel by car did not change their preferences. On the other hand, people living in the city began to travel on foot more often. Among the people who started to move mainly on foot during the pandemic were women. The results of the research indicate that the largest number of people used individual transport in this period, without changing their preference for the choice of means of transport or choosing not to use other forms of transport in the city.
The respondents’ preferences for choosing means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic are presented in Figure 7. The data analysis shows that the factors affecting the choice of means of transport changed. The respondents were guided mainly by their own travel comfort and safety in view of the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. The cost of travel, which in the earlier period usually determined the choice of public transport and consideration of the principles of sustainable development, had a smaller impact. Respondents indicated remote work as another factor influencing the choice of their means of transport, which was not given as an option in the questionnaire. In the case of people working remotely, the preference for choosing the means of transport shifted to walking.
In the post-pandemic period (Figure 8), the choice of the preferred mode of transport did not change for 52% of the respondents, including 69 people (58%) travelling by individual vehicles. A significant change took place in the change of the current way of traveling by people choosing public transport, including the 41% of people who gave up travelling by individual vehicles. Of those who mainly moved on foot during the pandemic, 14% stayed with this form of travel, 36% chose individual vehicles, and 48% chose public transport.
Figure 9 presents the results of the research on preferred means of transport in the post-pandemic period broken down by gender, age, and place of residence of the respondents. Changing the main means of transport to public transport was more often chosen by women than men, who stayed with the earlier (during the COVID-19 pandemic) form of travel. People under 18 did not change their preferences in means of transport after the beginning of the pandemic. People of pre-retirement age also chose the same means of transport as earlier—most often, it was an individual vehicle. Nevertheless, people aged between 18 and 44 began to use public transport more often in the presented research period. The preferred means of transport for people living in the neighbouring municipalities did not change, and it was most often a passenger car. Walking remained at the same level as during the COVID-19 pandemic for people living in cities.
The results of the research indicate that it is important to monitor the development of the choice of means of transport by people using transport services in cities. The literature mentions four possible scenarios that may occur in cities: (1) the demand for public transport is restored, (2) individual transport becomes the preferred choice, (3) the demand shifts to active transport modes, and (4) there is a clear decrease in demand for travel options [48]. The development of scenarios in cities and social behaviour will have a significant impact on the direction of city development and on the transport policy in place.
The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic definitely influenced the factors determining the choice of individual means of transport by the inhabitants of the Szczecin municipality and its neighbouring municipalities, which is presented in Figure 10. Nevertheless, it is worth mentioning that the time and cost of travel became important to the choice of means of transport. One’s own travel comfort had a determining impact on the preferred way of moving around the city. During the pandemic, this factor also played a key role in the preferences of the residents’ choice of means of transport. It seems important to note that after the pandemic period, security related to the spread of the COVID-19 virus played a lesser role in the form of movement. People who chose a means of transport in terms of safety related to the spread of the COVID-19 virus mainly used individual vehicles to move around the city. Factors such as the cost of transport and its time were more important for residents.
Based on the collected data, it could be concluded that:
  • The choice of the means of transport by women was mainly determined by the comfort of travel, then by the safety both related to the given means of transport and the spread of the pandemic;
  • The choice of means of transport by men was influenced mainly by travel comfort and time;
  • Public transport was more often used by women and people aged 18–34;
  • People living in the municipality of Szczecin and people aged 18–24 chose to move mainly on foot.
The next questions concerned road safety in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration during the introduced movement restrictions caused by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. According to 136 people (59%), the state of road safety did not improve in the analysed period of time. The vast majority of respondents observed an increased number of dangerous traffic situations involving VRUs and drivers in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration at the time of restrictions on the public’s movement. To the greatest extent, they concerned non-compliance with road traffic regulations by drivers—45.5%—then non-compliance with road traffic regulations by pedestrians—35.1%—and non-compliance with road traffic regulations by cyclists—24.2%.
In order to consider whether the perception of the level of road safety during the COVID-19 pandemic had an impact on the choice of means of transport of the respondents, it was decided that a statistical test would be conducted. Chi-square (χ2) was used to determine whether:
  • H0: there is a relationship between variables X and Y or;
  • H1: there is no relationship between X and Y;
  • Table 4 summarises the results of the statistical test, which includes observed and expected values.
The preferred means of transport of the respondents during the COVID-19 pandemic were taken into account for the statistical test. The results indicate the confirmation of Hypothesis 1 (H1), which indicates that there is no connection between the perception of road safety during the COVID-19 pandemic and individual road users. Assuming a significance level (α) of 0.05, degrees of freedom DF = 10, the result of the statistical test was 2.87, and the chi-square value was 0.72. The conducted statistical analysis confirms that each road user determines the safety status for the entire transport system and not for a selected group of road users. Therefore, the continuation of the research process is to consider the most common determinants affecting road safety on the parts of both motorists and vulnerable road users.
According to the respondents, during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the most dangerous behaviours of drivers were caused by (Figure 11) failure to give way to other motorized users in road traffic—45%, failure to comply with speed limit regulations—44.2%, and failure to adjust speed to traffic conditions—43.7%. Interestingly, these three factors, according to the statistics of the Police Headquarters in Szczecin, are the most common causes of road accidents (National Road Safety Council 2013). Failure to comply with speed limits and failure to adjust speed to traffic conditions were most often chosen by respondents who mainly travelled by public transport and on foot, followed by people choosing individual cars. Another incorrect behaviours by drivers according to the respondents was not giving way to pedestrians—41.1%. Failure to give way to pedestrians in road traffic was mainly noticed by people using public transport and individual vehicles.
In road traffic, many dangerous situations also arise due to the fault of pedestrians. According to the respondents, inappropriate behaviour of pedestrians affecting road safety during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic included primarily (Figure 12): careless entry onto the roadway—61.9%, then failure to comply with traffic lights– 41.6%—and crossing the road in a prohibited place—37.7%. According to the statistical data of the Police Headquarters in Szczecin, in this order, the above factors affect the occurrence of dangerous situations in road traffic involving pedestrians [42].
Due to the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, a change in the public’s preferences in the choice of means of transport was observed all over the world. The transmission of the virus in public transport was six times higher than in other means of transport, which definitely encouraged most people to give up this type of travel, mainly due to the impossibility of maintaining social distance [49]. Based on the conducted research, it appears that people using public transport before the pandemic chose a different type of transport; most often, it was travelling on foot or using individual vehicles. In the post-pandemic period, passenger cars were still a popular means of transport, but a significant number of people also changed their preferences to public transport. One of the main determinants was the cost of travel. Nevertheless, the rate of individual vehicles is worrying. Studies of preferences for the choice of means of transport, and changes in mobility patterns by the new generation have already been completed [50,51]. According to the data presented by the European Commission, the average number of passengers per vehicle in urban travel in the European Union member states is 1.20 to 1.90 persons [52].
Reduction of the number of individual vehicles in urban areas becomes a challenge for city authorities. Nevertheless, more and more often, the transport policies of cities take into account the development of infrastructure and the promotion of more friendly forms of movement and limit the number of vehicles in cities [53,54]. The number of individual vehicles affects the volume of road traffic and the number of VRU–driver interactions. On the basis of the conducted research, during the pandemic, dangerous behaviours of vehicle drivers included failure to give the right of way and failure to adjust speed to the specified speed limits and traffic conditions. These are also the main factors of road accidents. According to the OECD report, vehicle speed is the primary factor affecting VRU safety. The unsuitable speed of vehicles results in the severity of injuries to pedestrians and cyclists [55]. Excessive speed of vehicles is treated as a critical risk factor for VRU safety; it shortens the reaction time of the driver and pedestrian [56]. Also taking into account the lack of observance of traffic regulations by pedestrians, the risk of road accidents increases.

5. Conclusions

Walking has been on the decline as a result of development of motorised transport in cities. The number of vehicles in the city negatively affects safety and causes congestion, air pollution, and noise. Urban development aimed at increasing the number of pedestrians has a positive impact on environmental and psychological factors [57]. Investments in the maintenance and upkeep of infrastructure have a positive impact on road safety and contribute to reducing the number of fatalities and thus result in creation of added value in the form of a more sustainable transport system [58]. The increase in the number of vehicles and traffic volume in cities was disturbed by the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Nevertheless, the post-pandemic period shows that the number of road vehicles has increased in urban transport networks.
The pandemic and the related restrictions on movement affected the choice of means of transport, the behaviour of individual groups of road users, and the creation of dangerous situations in road traffic. The results may be useful for city decision makers in identifying drivers with unsafe driving practices and VRU behaviour as well as further developing and encouraging people to use more environmentally friendly forms of mobility. It should be noted that the listed factors are not the only ones present; they were identified from police road safety reports. They are not exhaustive, but they are an important point of reference in planning further actions to support road safety, in particular with regard to VRUs.
According to the conducted statistical research, the hypotheses that the intensity and saturation of the transport network affect the number of road accidents and the level of safety in road traffic, including pedestrians, have been confirmed. Despite the reduced traffic of motorised vehicles during the pandemic, there were a significant number of road accidents, but their occurrence coincided with traffic peaks.
The respondents indicated that the level of safety did not improve during the pandemic and that the number of VRU–driver interactions was high. Summarizing the conducted research, it should be noted that the adopted research and analytical procedure gave answers to the research questions regarding identification of factors/behaviours of individual groups of road users perceived as dangerous. These factors have been confirmed in the Reports on Road Accidents and their Consequences provided by the General Police Headquarters as the main determinants of road accidents.
The identified determinants of the choice of means of transport are a very important indication in which direction public transport and other means alternative to individual transport should develop. The factors reducing the negative behaviours of drivers and pedestrians resulting in collisions and road accidents should continue to be legislative work aimed at tightening the regulations against people who do not comply with the rules of the road. In order to reduce the errors of road users, it is important to conduct systematic processes of educational campaigns in the field of increasing road safety awareness.
A priority procedure for city authorities in the context of increasing the level of road safety should be investing and modernising the existing road infrastructure and eliminating particularly dangerous places. In the area of the Szczecin agglomeration, it is necessary to inspect and inventory all pedestrian crossings in terms of their location and the legitimacy of maintaining such crossings as well as all stops and bus bays of public transport in terms of their safe foundation. This is an important aspect in increasing the safety of participants due to the role of public transport in the urban transport system.
This study provides insightful findings and contributes to the existing literature. Additionally, it raises a few issues that should be noted. The first concerns the surveyed groups of respondents; the uneven distribution of their participation in the research process could distort the final results, taking into account the individual groups representing them. Despite the authors’ proof that the assessment of road safety does not correlate with the road user, it is worth examining this aspect with other features of the society and collecting an appropriate research sample for a given category. Future research must be targeted at particular groups of respondents, taking into account their individual characteristics. The authors intend to continue the research, taking into account the division into individual generations. An additional issue limiting the conduct of the research process was the short post-pandemic time, in which some behaviours of road users were a continuation of the pandemic period. Therefore, it is proposed that the following years be included in subsequent studies, also taking into account the lifting of all restrictions related to the pandemic. Our upcoming research aims to address the above shortcomings when the necessary and most up-to-date data becomes available.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su151411000/s1, Supplementary File S1: Road traffic safety and mobility of the inhabitants of Szczecin and the surrounding communes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.S.-F., P.O. and S.I.; methodology, K.S.-F.; validation, K.S.-F. and P.O.; formal analysis, K.S.-F.; resources, K.S.-F. and P.O.; data curation, K.S.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, K.S.-F. and P.O.; writing—review and editing, K.S.-F., P.O. and S.I.; visualization, K.S.-F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Number of road accidents and their consequences in Szczecin in 2017–2021 [42].
Figure 1. Number of road accidents and their consequences in Szczecin in 2017–2021 [42].
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Figure 2. Choosing the main means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 2. Choosing the main means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 3. Choice of the main means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
Figure 3. Choice of the main means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
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Figure 4. Determinants of the choice of means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 4. Determinants of the choice of means of transport before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 5. Preferences for choosing the main means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 5. Preferences for choosing the main means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 6. Choice of the main means of transport during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
Figure 6. Choice of the main means of transport during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
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Figure 7. Determinants of the choice of means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 7. Determinants of the choice of means of transport during the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 8. Preferences for choosing the main means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 8. Preferences for choosing the main means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 9. Choice of the main means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
Figure 9. Choice of the main means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic broken down by (a) gender, (b) age, and (c) place of residence.
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Figure 10. Determinants of the choice of means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
Figure 10. Determinants of the choice of means of transport after the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic.
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Figure 11. Dangerous behaviours of drivers in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration during the movement restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Figure 11. Dangerous behaviours of drivers in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration during the movement restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Figure 12. Dangerous behaviours of pedestrians in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration during the movement restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
Figure 12. Dangerous behaviours of pedestrians in the area of the Szczecin agglomeration during the movement restrictions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Table
Table 1. Sites of road accidents involving pedestrians in Szczecin in 2017–2021 [42].
Table 1. Sites of road accidents involving pedestrians in Szczecin in 2017–2021 [42].
Road Accident SiteNumber of Road Accidents Involving Pedestrians in Szczecin
20172018201920202021
Sidewalk, pedestrian path913843
Roadside00100
Pedestrian crossing11584926055
Bus/tram stop62641
Intersection7249534633
Table
Table 2. Number of road accidents on particular days of the week in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship from 2017 to 2021 [42].
Table 2. Number of road accidents on particular days of the week in the West Pomeranian Voivodeship from 2017 to 2021 [42].
Day of the WeekNumber of Road Accidents
20172018201920202021
Monday175208193154131
Tuesday194167170129154
Wednesday204163173129129
Thursday148160178140134
Friday208176192142157
Saturday170174186139141
Sunday13313512794100
Table
Table 3. Description of the respondents’ sociodemographic data.
Table 3. Description of the respondents’ sociodemographic data.
VariablesRespondentsPercentage
GenderFemale15064.94%
Male8135.06%
Age<1831.30%
18–2411549.78%
25–34229.52%
35–444218.18%
45–543113.42%
55–64187.79%
MunicipalitySzczecin15366.23%
Dobra114.76%
Police146.06%
Kolbaskowo20.87%
Goleniow83.46%
Stare Czarnowo20.87%
Kobylanka31.30%
Stargard1235.06%
Pyrzyce264.94%
Gryfino21.30%
Other2249.78%
Table
Table 4. Chi-square test for the perception of road safety and its users.
Table 4. Chi-square test for the perception of road safety and its users.
ObservedPedestriansIndividual Vehicle UsersPublic Transport UsersTaxi/
Uber		Bike/
Scooter		MotorcycleTotal
Noticed an improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic2113113039
Did not notice the improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic2018144148
Total4131257187
ExpectedPedestriansIndividual Vehicle UsersPublic Transport UsersTaxi/
Uber		Bike/
Scooter		MotorcycleTotal
Noticed an improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic18.3813.900.902.243.140.4539
Did not notice the improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic22.6217.101.102.763.860.5548
Total4131257187
Test StatisticPedestriansIndividual Vehicle UsersPublic Transport UsersTaxi/
Uber		Bike/
Scooter		MotorcycleTotal
Noticed an improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic0.370.060.010.690.010.451.59
Did not notice the improvement in traffic during the COVID-19 pandemic0.300.050.010.560.000.361.29
Total0.680.100.021.250.010.812.87
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Sosik-Filipiak, K.; Ostrowski, P.; Iwan, S. Pedestrian Safety in Road Traffic in the Era of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in the Example of Szczecin. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11000. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411000

AMA Style

Sosik-Filipiak K, Ostrowski P, Iwan S. Pedestrian Safety in Road Traffic in the Era of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in the Example of Szczecin. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11000. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411000

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sosik-Filipiak, Katarzyna, Piotr Ostrowski, and Stanisław Iwan. 2023. "Pedestrian Safety in Road Traffic in the Era of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic in the Example of Szczecin" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11000. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411000

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