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Article

Nondestructive Measurement of the Water Content in Building Materials by Single-Sided NMR-MOUSE

by
Quzhen Zhaxi
1,
Hua Zhou
2,*,
Zhenyu Long
3,
Juwen Guo
4,
Yanping Zhou
5 and
Zhongjian Zhang
3,*
1
Cultural Relics Conservation Institute of Tibet Autonomous Region, Lhasa 850001, China
2
College of Applied Arts and Science, Beijing Union University, Beijing 100191, China
3
Department of Civil Engineering, School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
4
China Academy of Cultural Heritage, Beijing 100029, China
5
Ji’an Cultural Relics Bureau, Tonghua 134299, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2023, 15(14), 11096; https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411096
Submission received: 29 April 2023 / Revised: 8 July 2023 / Accepted: 12 July 2023 / Published: 16 July 2023
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Abstract

:
Water has a significant impact on the properties of building materials. A nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometer can be used to detect water in materials and measure its distribution nondestructively, rapidly, and accurately. In this paper, a novel method is introduced for using single-sided NMR to measure the water content (WC) of building materials, including brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete. The NMR signal intensity and water content of these building materials were measured using a single-sided NMR-MOUSE PM25 and a high-precision electronic scale, respectively. A total of 80 groups of NMR signal intensity and water content data were obtained in two different measurement environments. The NMR signal intensity and water content data for each of the four building materials were fitted by the least squares method. The similarity of the coefficients of the determined correlations demonstrated that these relations are universal for building materials and independent of the NMR signal intensity and water content measurement environments.

1. Introduction

Water is the main cause of denudation and degradation of porous building materials: water infiltrates porous media and freezes, and transported soluble salt undergoes chemical reactions with building materials that induce corrosion [1,2,3,4]. The WC of building materials impacts the strength [5,6], heat insulation performance [7,8], microwave dielectric performance [9], resistance [10], piezoresistance [11], and other properties, which interfere with the use of these materials. It is important to determine the WC of various materials and take corresponding measures for their usage and storage [12,13,14,15]. The drying method is usually used to measure the WC of building materials in the laboratory; that is, a sample is dried to a constant weight, and the mass of the sample before and after drying is used to calculate the WC [16,17]. The drying method has high precision but cannot be used for in situ monitoring, and the drying process changes and destroys thermally responsive materials [18,19].
In nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), the interaction between the radio frequency energy of hydrogen atoms (1H) and a strong magnetic field can be used to quantitatively detect the content and distribution of hydrogen atoms in materials [20]; thus, NMR is widely used to measure the distribution of water in building materials, such as sandstone [21,22,23,24,25], limestone [26], cement [27,28,29,30], and lime [31]. NMR can be used to detect water in a sample without first drying the sample and has the characteristics of being nondestructive and rapid. However, traditional NMR instruments are large and inconvenient to use, making it difficult to carry out in situ detection for engineering processes.
In the past few years, single-sided NMR instruments have been developed that offer the advantages of traditional NMR technology, along with an open magnet structure and no sample size limitations for the nondestructive in situ measurement of the content and distribution of hydrogen atoms. Blümich et al. pioneered the use of a single-sided NMR probe in the degradation measurement of a German historical paper from the 17th century [32]. Viola et al. used a portable NMR probe to nondestructively measure the variation in the NMR signal intensity of a Codex Major paper in situ and observed the deterioration process of the paper and the corrosive effect of the iron-gall ink used [33]. Agnes Haber et al. utilized a large NMR-MOUSE to detect the NMR signal intensity in ancient Herculaneum murals and draw hydrogen-atom density profiles at different locations of Neptune and Amphitrite mosaics, providing a novel method for identifying the nature of the organic coatings and pigments used [34]. Bortolotti et al. measured the NMR signal intensity by using a single-sided NMR instrument mq-ProFiler and analyzed the characteristics and quantity of water absorption of the reinforced Lecce Stone, demonstrating that single-sided NMR technology is a powerful tool for the in situ assessment for the waterproofing treatment of stone tools [35]. Oliver Weichold et al. utilized NMR-MOUSE to compare the passage of two low molecular hydrophobic agents into concrete and the properties of the resulting hydrophobic layers [36]. Yoshito Nakashima et al. used single-sided NMR to measure the WC of powdered low-rank coal to evaluate the combustion efficiency of wet coal, demonstrating the feasibility of using single-sided NMR to nondestructively measure the WC [37]. Tommaso Poli et al. used a portable NMR EUREKA-MOUSE 10 to characterize carbonatic (Noto stone) and silicatic (a commercial brick) stone materials and found a significant linear relationship between NMR signal intensity and WC, although a quantitative correlation was not obtained [38].
The current research on the detection of water in materials using single-sided NMR mainly focuses on detecting the presence of water, and proves that the NMR signal intensity and its water content measured by the single-sided NMR technique have a corresponding relationship; however, a quantitative relationship formula applicable to the NMR signal intensity and water content has not yet been obtained, especially for immovable cultural relics. In order to remedy this aspect of research, this paper intends to use four porous building materials (including two replica immovable cultural relic materials and two modern building materials) as the research object and use a single-sided NMR instrument to calibrate the water content of building materials and establish the relationship between NMR signal intensity and water content in building materials. First, different materials and different moisture contents were measured by the weighing method, and the corresponding NMR signal intensities were measured using a single-sided NMR instrument to obtain the moisture contents and corresponding NMR signal intensities for several groups. The water content and NMR signal intensity were fitted to derive the relevant fitting equations, and the obtained results can be used as a reference for the related research on immovable cultural objects.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Porous materials commonly used in existing buildings with a variety of pore structures and sizes (brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete) were selected for investigation. Fired clay bricks were selected for the brick category. Clay was collected near the ancient town of Pingyao and screened. The prepared clay blocks were placed in a high-temperature furnace and heated to 100 °C for 1 h, followed by heating to 900 °C at a rate of 3 °C/min and maintenance at 900 °C for 3 h. Sandstone was collected near the Longyou Grottoes group in Longyou County, Zhejiang Province. The stratum was the Upper Cretaceous Quxian Formation, and the lithology was brick-red thick-bedded muddy siltstone mixed with fine sandstone. M15 mortar was selected for the mortar category and consisted of Zhonglian PO42.5 cement and Luoma Lake washed medium sand (0–5 mm, fineness modulus 2.5), where the mix proportions were cement:medium sand:water = 1:2:0.40; the mixture was cured for 28 d in an environment with a temperature of 20 °C and a relative humidity of 95% [39]. C30 concrete was selected for the concrete category and consisted of Zhonglian PO42.5 cement, Luoma Lake washed medium sand (0–5 mm, fineness modulus 2.5), and set stone (5–10 mm). The mix proportions were cement:medium sand:stone:water = 1:1:2:0.35, and the mixture was cured for 28 days in the same environment with a temperature of 20 °C and a relative humidity of 95% [40]. The samples were formed in a mold with dimensions of 40 × 40 × 15 mm. The physical properties of the different materials are shown in Table 1.
Figure 1 shows the pore size distributions of the four materials measured with a PoreMaster GT mercury injection meter. The sandstone sample has the largest average pore size, with a maximum pore volume of approximately 6000–10,000 nm, accounting for approximately 30% of the total pore volume. The brick sample has a large average pore size and a maximum pore volume of approximately 800–1500 nm, accounting for approximately 47% of the total pore volume. The concrete sample has an average pore size of approximately 600–1000 nm, accounting for 12% of the total pore volume. The mortar sample has the smallest mean pore size, with a maximum pore volume of approximately 400–800 nm, accounting for approximately 17% of the total pore volume.

2.2. Experimental Methods

2.2.1. Experimental Apparatus

All the tests performed in this study were carried out using a single-sided NMR instrument (NMR-MOUSE) manufactured by Magritek, Germany. A PM25 model was used, consisting of a magnetic probe instrument and a spectrometer (Figure 2). The coil serial number was C25L1503, the operating frequency was 13.35 MHz, and the lateral dimensions of the sensitive volume were 40 × 40 mm. The maximum measurement depth was 25 mm, and the gradient strength was 310 kHz/mm.
The parameters of the magnetic probe were PM25-10 mm.par, 32 echoes, a 200-μm resolution, an initial depth of 18,000 μm, a final depth of −1000 μm, and a step depth of −400 μm. The parameters of the spectrometer were a pulse frequency of 13.35 MHz, an echo spacing of 82 μs, a pulse length of 5.5 μs, a 90° amplitude of −7, a 180° amplitude of 0, 32 scans, and a scan interval of 1000 ms.
The PC app for the spectrometer was Prospa, and the “Profile Application” instruction in the app was used to measure the NMR signal intensity of layers in a moist sample by operating a CPMG fast pulse sequence.
As shown in Figure 2, a magnetic sensor produces a constant magnetic field, a magnetic probe is positioned at a fixed distance from the sample in the detection area, and a program is set to increase or decrease the step length and distance; the samples are divided into several sections, and the magnetic probe can be moved using a motorized lift platform to adjust the sampling range (the depth) for hydrogen atoms in the longitudinal stratification measurement. The layer NMR signal intensity represents the number of hydrogen atoms contained in each section of the sample. The overall NMR signal intensity of the sample can be obtained by superimposing the layer NMR signal intensity of all the sections.

2.2.2. Experimental Process

The WC was measured as follows: the samples were dried, weighed, flooded, and weighed again; the NMR signal intensity of each layer was measured, and the NMR signal intensity and WC data were fitted. The detailed operation was as follows. (1) A sample was dried in a 65 °C oven for 48 h to a quality change of less than 1% and cooled to room temperature; the dried quality M0 was recorded. (2) The sample was immersed in distilled water and allowed to absorb water naturally over a period of time; the sample was removed from the water, moisture on the sample surface was immediately wiped off, and the sample mass M1 was recorded. The WC was calculated as (M1 − M0)/M0. (3) The NMR signal intensity of the sample was measured by single-sided NMR, the layer NMR signal intensity was recorded, and the overall NMR signal intensity of the sample was obtained by superposition of the layer NMR signal intensities. (4) The sample was immersed in water again and allowed to absorb water naturally, and Steps (2) and (3) were repeated to obtain the NMR signal intensity and WC after immersing the sample for different times. The NMR signal intensity and WC data obtained from each measurement were fitted to obtain a correlation equation between the NMR signal intensity and WC of the sample.
As each single-side NMR experiment to measure the layer NMR signal intensity lasted 20 min, absorption or evaporation of water in the sample during the measurement process was prevented by using a single piece of plastic wrap to seal the sample during the measurement.
To study the influence of the external environment on the results of the experiment and to calibrate the WC, two environmental conditions with different temperatures and humidities and a 0 m/s wind speed were set, namely, Environment 1 (Env. 1), with a temperature of 20 ± 1 °C and a humidity of 50 ± 5%, and Environment 2 (Env. 2), with a temperature of 30 ± 1 °C and a humidity of 20 ± 5%. To ensure experimental accuracy, air conditioners and humidifiers were used to control the temperature and humidity of the environment throughout the measurement process, temperature and humidity meters were used to monitor the ambient temperature and humidity, and an anemometer was used to measure the wind speed (see Figure 3).
The following relationship between the measured NMR signal intensity and the corresponding WC was assumed to hold in this study:
WC = a × T + b,
where a is a coefficient, T is the NMR signal intensity, and b is the WC obtained by the weighing method at an NMR signal intensity of 0. The values of a and b were obtained by fitting the data using the least squares method.

3. Results

The layer NMR signal intensity measured by the single-sided NMR instrument was superimposed and fitted to the WC at the corresponding time, and the results are shown in Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7, where the NMR signal intensity label of the abscissa denotes the sum of the layer NMR signal intensities, and the ordinate is the WC calculated by weighing the sample of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete.
Figure 4a, Figure 5a, Figure 6a, Figure 7a, Figure 4b, Figure 5b, Figure 6b and Figure 7b show the NMR signal intensity versus WC curves fitted to the experimental data obtained for brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete in Env. 1 (temperature: 20 ± 1 °C; humidity: 50 ± 5%) and Env. 2 (temperature: 30 ± 1 °C; humidity: 20 ± 5%), respectively. Figure 4c, Figure 5c, Figure 6c and Figure 7c show the NMR signal intensity versus WC curves fitted to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2 for brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete, respectively. The R2 of the fitted equation was close to one, indicating that there was an obvious linear relationship between the fitted curves of NMR signal intensities and WC data.
Figure 8a–c shows the NMR signal intensity versus WC curves fitted to the experimental data for the four materials of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete obtained in Env. 1 and Env. 2 and the combined data obtained in Env. 1 and Env. 2. The R2 of the fitted equation was close to one, indicating that there was an obvious linear relationship between the fitted curves of NMR signal intensities and WC data.
Table 2 shows the fitted correlation equation for the NMR signal intensity and WC for the four porous building materials, namely, brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete, measured under different experimental environments. There is little difference between the coefficients of the obtained equations (see Equations (1), (4), (7), (10) and (13); Equations (2), (5), (8), (11) and (14); and Equations (3), (6), (9), (12) and (15) in Table 2) and the variances in the coefficients are 0.01154, 0.00910, and 0.00682, respectively. This result shows that the correlations between the NMR signal intensities and WCs are similar for the four building materials. The R2 values are all greater than 0.95, demonstrating a high fitting degree and that it is feasible to calibrate the WC in porous building materials by using single-sided NMR. The variance of the coefficients in Equation (15) is 0.01079 with a low degree of dispersion, indicating that the fit to the set of 80 NMR signal intensities and WC data is applicable to all four common building materials.

4. Discussion

The high correlation and good fit between the NMR signal intensities and WCs of the four materials demonstrate the applicability of the quantitative formulas for NMR signal intensities and WCs obtained in this study of the water content of immovable artifacts at the source site of the materials. Based on these quantitative formulas, the capillary water absorption coefficients of the same materials can be further investigated, which is of great significance for the study of weathering of immovable artifacts.
The variance in the coefficients of the fitting equation obtained for different measuring environments is small and the degree of dispersion is low, indicating that no special environment is required to use single-sided NMR to determine the WCs of porous building materials. There is little difference among the coefficients in the fitted correlations between the NMR signal intensities and WCs of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete obtained for Env. 1 and Env. 2 (see Equations (1)–(3), Equations (4)–(6), Equations (7)–(9), Equations (10)–(12), and Equations (13)–(15)) and the variances of these coefficients are 0.00047, 0.00047, 0.01416, 000882, and 0.00500, respectively. The variance of the coefficient in the correlation for the four building materials is 0.01154 using the data obtained in Env. 1, 0.00910 using the data obtained in Env. 2, and 0.00682 using the combined data obtained in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
The working frequency of the single-sided NMR instrument selected in this study is 13.35 MHz, but the echo spacing used in the parameter setting is extremely short, which can restrain the interference of paramagnetic impurities on the results to a certain extent. In addition, 13.35 MHz has a higher signal-to-noise ratio than a low magnetic field, which is more conducive to the rapid detection of samples. Therefore, the results obtained in this paper are applicable to the same type of single-sided NMR instrument with the same parameter settings, and changing the parameters or instruments may affect the experimental results. The single-sided NMR instrument used in this paper can be equipped with a stand that can be freely lifted and moved to align the magnetic probe with the object to be measured, so as to achieve the purpose of measuring the moisture content of the object in real time on site.
The intercepts of Equations (1)–(15) range from 0.32% to 1.06%. That is, when the NMR signal intensity was zero in the samples, the WC was not zero. This result is obtained because the NMR signal intensity was measured for 400-μm-thick layers in the samples. The motion of the lift table created a small separation between the sample layers and the corresponding component of the NMR signal intensity was not detected by the single-sided NMR instrument. However, the WC corresponding to this contribution to the NMR signal intensity was measured by the weighing method, leading to a nonzero intercept for the fitted correlation between the NMR signal intensity and WC.

5. Conclusions

In this study, a method for determining the WC of porous building materials by single-sided NMR is developed by determining the relationship between different NMR signal intensities and the corresponding WCs in four building materials, brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete: the quantitative correlation between the NMR signal intensity and WC for all four materials is WC = 2.14 × T + 0.80, R2 = 0.9666 (see Equation (15) in Table 2). The main conclusions of this study are given below:
(1)
The NMR signal intensity of each of the four building materials is strongly linearly correlated with the WC. The coefficients in the fitted correlations for the four building materials are not very different, indicating similar correlations between the NMR signal intensities and WCs for all four building materials.
(2)
There is little difference among the coefficients in the fitted correlations between the NMR signal intensities and WCs obtained in Env. 1 (temperature: 20 ± 1 °C; humidity: 50 ± 5%) and Env. 2 (temperature: 30 ± 1 °C; humidity: 20 ± 5%), indicating that a special environment is not required to determine the WCs of porous building materials using single-side NMR; thus, the proposed method has a wide range of applications. The formula can be directly used in field experiments of the ancient city walls of Pingyao, etc., and is also an important reference for the weathering studies of these buildings.
In practical construction projects, a bracket is constructed to enable the NMR instrument to rise and fall freely, and the magnetic probe is aimed at the object to be measured (such as an ancient brick wall, rock, mortar, concrete, etc.) to continuously measure the WC of the object. This method can avoid the disturbance and destruction of cultural relics and obtain the water content and the parts of the water distribution of cultural relics quickly and accurately, which is a green and sustainable method with guiding significance for the conservation and restoration of cultural relics. Moreover, after establishing the relationship between NMR signal intensities and water contents in materials, it is also possible to further study the capillary water absorption of cultural heritage objects based on this relationship, which has considerable potential for application.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.Z. and H.Z.; methodology, Q.Z. and J.G.; software, Z.L.; validation, Q.Z., Y.Z. and H.Z.; formal analysis, Z.L.; investigation, Q.Z. and Y.Z.; resources, H.Z.; data curation, Q.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, Q.Z. and Z.L.; writing—review and editing, Z.Z.; visualization, J.G.; supervision, Z.Z. and H.Z.; project administration, J.G.; funding acquisition, H.Z. and Z.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Beijing Municipal Natural Science Foundation, grant number 8222017, and the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 42272336.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Beijing Limecho Technology Co., Ltd. provided the data processing software POLIMAR and NMR technology support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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  42. Zhang, Z.; Li, L.; Xu, W.; Fu, Y.; Feng, J. Flat-plate roof collapse of shallow caverns and protective measures: A case study of Longyou ancient siltstone caverns. Nat. Hazards 2015, 76, 191–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
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Figure 1. Cumulative incremental pore volume and pore volume proportion for (a) brick, (b) mortar, (c) sandstone, and (d) concrete.
Figure 1. Cumulative incremental pore volume and pore volume proportion for (a) brick, (b) mortar, (c) sandstone, and (d) concrete.
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Figure 2. Measurement of the stratified NMR signal intensity by single-sided NMR: (a) instrument diagram, (b) measurement diagram, (c) sample layering diagram.
Figure 2. Measurement of the stratified NMR signal intensity by single-sided NMR: (a) instrument diagram, (b) measurement diagram, (c) sample layering diagram.
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Figure 3. Schematic of the experimental setup.
Figure 3. Schematic of the experimental setup.
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Figure 4. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of brick obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
Figure 4. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of brick obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
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Figure 5. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of sandstone obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
Figure 5. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of sandstone obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
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Figure 6. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of mortar obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
Figure 6. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of mortar obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
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Figure 7. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of concrete obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
Figure 7. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of concrete obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
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Figure 8. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
Figure 8. The relationship between the NMR signal intensity and WC of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete obtained by fitting the experimental data measured in (a) Env. 1 and (b) Env. 2. (c) Fit to the combined experimental data measured in Env. 1 and Env. 2.
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Table
Table 1. Physical properties of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete.
Table 1. Physical properties of brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete.
SampleSerial NumberComposition (%)/RatioMain Pore Size and Distribution Range (nm)Open Porosity (%)Total Pore Volume (cm³)Density (g/cm3)Photo
BrickB-1Quartz 38, K-feldspar 5, albite 10, calcite 17, halite 5, gypsum 1, clay minerals 24 [41]500–200031.220.12381.877Sustainability 15 11096 i001
B-2600–200029.120.16161.876
B-3500–200028.880.14911.863
SandstoneS-1Quartz 47.0, plagioclase 21.0, calcite 16.0, clay minerals 16.0 [42]2000–90005.510.02202.151Sustainability 15 11096 i002
S-23000–800012.390.03892.124
S-32000–800013.320.04742.215
MortarM-1Cement: Medium sand: water = 1:2:0.40200–80016.890.11552.040Sustainability 15 11096 i003
M-2200–80015.980.08642.044
M-3300–90018.930.07802.061
ConcreteC-1Cement: Medium sand: water = 1:2:0.40300–7009.470.03562.046Sustainability 15 11096 i004
C-2300–8007.120.05262.065
C-3400–8008.710.05382.055
1 The pore size range, total pore volume, and open pore porosity (presented as percentages) were measured by a PoreMaster GT mercury injection meter.
Table
Table 2. The fitted correlation equation between the NMR signal intensity and WC of four building materials: brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete.
Table 2. The fitted correlation equation between the NMR signal intensity and WC of four building materials: brick, sandstone, mortar, and concrete.
SampleExperimental EnvironmentFitted EquationCoefficients of the Correlation EquationIntercept of the Correlation EquationVariance of the CoefficientCorrelation Coefficient R2Number of Data Groups
BrickEnv. 1Equation (1): WC = 2.13 × T + 0.902.130.900.000470.973211
Env. 2Equation (2): WC = 2.18 × T + 0.612.180.610.963711
Env. 1 and Env. 2Equation (3): WC = 2.14 × T + 0.802.140.800.966622
SandstoneEnv. 1Equation (4): WC = 2.22 × T + 0.322.220.320.000470.987010
Env. 2Equation (5): WC = 2.27 × T + 0.412.270.410.975110
Env. 1 and Env. 2Equation (6): WC = 2.26 × T + 0.352.260.350.979020
MortarEnv. 1Equation (7): WC = 2.45 × T + 0.412.450.410.014160.99299
Env. 2Equation (8): WC = 2.16 × T + 1.062.161.060.98999
Env. 1 and Env. 2Equation (9): WC = 2.33 × T + 0.642.330.640.988818
ConcreteEnv. 1Equation (10): WC = 2.23 × T + 0.392.230.390.008820.972810
Env. 2Equation (11): WC = 2.00 × T + 0.802.000.800.957210
Env. 1 and Env. 2Equation (12): WC = 2.12 × T + 0.562.120.560.964720
Brick, sandstone, mortar, concreteEnv. 1Equation (13): WC = 2.31 × T + 0.432.310.430.005000.973240
Env. 2Equation (14): WC = 2.25 × T + 0.532.250.530.968540
Env. 1 and Env. 2Equation (15): WC = 2.14 × T + 0.802.140.800.966680
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Zhaxi, Q.; Zhou, H.; Long, Z.; Guo, J.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, Z. Nondestructive Measurement of the Water Content in Building Materials by Single-Sided NMR-MOUSE. Sustainability 2023, 15, 11096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411096

AMA Style

Zhaxi Q, Zhou H, Long Z, Guo J, Zhou Y, Zhang Z. Nondestructive Measurement of the Water Content in Building Materials by Single-Sided NMR-MOUSE. Sustainability. 2023; 15(14):11096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411096

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhaxi, Quzhen, Hua Zhou, Zhenyu Long, Juwen Guo, Yanping Zhou, and Zhongjian Zhang. 2023. "Nondestructive Measurement of the Water Content in Building Materials by Single-Sided NMR-MOUSE" Sustainability 15, no. 14: 11096. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411096

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