Sustainable Consumption and Environmental Change in Taiwan: Understanding Consumer Perceptions and Narratives of Practice

Abstract

This study investigates the perceptions and behaviors related to sustainable food consumption among various demographic groups in northern Taiwan, focusing on the metropolitan areas of Taipei City and New Taipei City. The narratives of Taiwanese people practicing sustainable eating were analyzed by applying practice theory. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 30 participants from diverse demographic backgrounds (e.g., university students, homemakers, professionals, and retirees). Their educational backgrounds and work experience were recorded. The research highlights the effects of urbanization on the food choices of consumers, highlighting challenges such as high costs, time constraints, and limited access to kitchen facilities among university students. High-income professionals and retirees exhibited a preference for organic and locally sourced foods, whereas middle-aged homemakers emphasized seasonality and support for small farmers. The crucial roles of information sources (e.g., online media and television) and various cultural factors (e.g., religious beliefs) in influencing sustainable food behaviors were also identified. Despite its regional focus, this study provides valuable insights and recommendations for policymakers that can support sustainable food consumption.

1. Introduction

The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group (2022) estimated that human greenhouse gas emissions associated with agriculture, forestry, and other types of land use account for approximately 13–21% of global greenhouse gas emissions [1]. The group also asserted that if relevant industries actively transform and adopt measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the management of food systems, forestry resources, and other renewable resources, the effects of climate change can be mitigated, and biodiversity can increase. Calls for adoption of sustainable diets have gradually increased globally [2,3]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations indicated that countries should provide guidelines for integrating sustainability practices into food policies and consumer education programs [4]. Numerous governments of various countries have outlined their own sustainable food policies. For example, the British Sustainable Development Commission explicitly stated that food is key to sustainability because food production and consumption are interwoven in the economic, environmental, and societal spheres [5].

In practice, a lack of consensus regarding the purpose of public information about food often results in sustainable diet information being shaped by product marketers. This occurs because no coordinating institution or agency has been established to ensure alignment of disseminated information with a nation’s goals. Individual firms may prioritize presenting their products favorably, and consumers may struggle to assess the importance and implications of the messages they receive. Occasional conflicting messages within government sectors can hinder efforts toward promoting environmental stewardship in agriculture [6]. Concerns have been raised regarding the effectiveness of voluntary and indirect policy approaches to achieving sustainable consumption and production patterns at a national level [7]. Achieving the objective of increasing sustainable consumption requires a shift toward adopting low-carbon and circular economy methods within food systems and toward encouraging widespread adoption of sustainable lifestyles [8,9]. Social scientists have struggled to identify a means of enabling individuals to spearhead an ecological transition, which would include embracing sustainable consumption patterns [8,9].

Although sustainable consumption and green marketing are crucial topics, most relevant studies have focused on Western contexts, specifically Europe and North America, where food movements and awareness of sustainable consumption are prevalent. Few studies have explored non-Anglophone and non-Western contexts [10]. The present qualitative study is conducted in Taiwan and investigates diverse consumer choices and perceptions regarding sustainable food practices, with a focus on communication strategies and policy implications. The study broadens the scope of sustainable food consumption research by focusing on sustainable eating practices in Taiwan and examining factors such as food quality, material conditions, social and cultural resources, information use, and life experiences. It expands on prior research by highlighting the significant role cultural resources play in influencing the decisions of consumers to adopt sustainable eating practices.

The subsequent sections of this paper comprise a literature review on sustainable consumption and communication (Section 2); a detailed description of the employed methodology (Section 3); the main results, including an analysis of consumer narratives (Section 4); and the main conclusions (Section 5).

2. Literature Review

2.1. Sustainable Consumption and Communication

The Oslo Symposium [11] defined sustainable consumption as consumers ensuring “use of goods and services that have the least impact on the global environment so that they can meet the basic needs of present and future generations”. This definition emphasizes minimizing environmental effects while addressing the needs of both current and future generations. Sustainable consumption involves making choices that promote ecological balance, social equity, and economic health in the long term. Although environmental awareness and understanding of global warming have increased, a considerable disparity exists between the favorable attitudes of individuals toward sustainable and organic food and their actual dietary practices [12,13].

Research on sustainable consumption began in earnest in the mid-20th century and focused on environmental organizations, rhetoric, corporate publicity, and environmental websites. Early studies [14] investigated how persuasion strategies evoke appreciation of nature, the influence of social and psychological factors on constructs of self among individuals, the persuasive effects of environmentally friendly messages [15], and how culture shapes individual perceptions of nature, communities, and places [16].

Recent environmental communication research has focused on encouraging behavioral changes in response to climate change. However, traditional media campaigns promoting climate change adaptation typically result in behavioral changes in only an average 9% of the target audience. This finding indicates that multilevel strategic models are required to achieve substantial behavioral changes. In addition to legal enforcement, measures such as developing more effective and creative outreach strategies [17] can increase consumer exposure to new and relevant information while considering social norms. Social marketing alone is insufficient to achieve public participation because community influence, social identity, social capital, and informal education also play crucial roles in promoting responsible environmental citizenship [18].

A systematic review of sustainable consumption and communication studies indicated that these studies can be categorized into four main areas: (1) promoting behavioral changes in consumers, (2) empowering individuals, (3) exploring systemic changes, and (4) reflecting on the discourse and practice of sustainable consumption [19]. However, numerous studies of sustainable marketing are restricted in their scope because they only considered communication as a form of information transmission [19]. Communication regarding sustainable consumption involves negotiating meanings and exploring differences, and it is influenced by cultural and social structures resulting from stakeholder interactions. Studies focusing on gaps in consumer knowledge, attitudes, and actions have revealed that consumer behavior is influenced not just by information but also by factors such as material capital, psychological thresholds, and social barriers [20,21]. Consumers who intend to practice sustainable food consumption may be constrained by their financial status, commodity prices, or factors related to the material environment and the supply side that pertain to sustainable diets [22].

Early studies in this area have paid little attention to encouraging dietary changes, promoting energy conservation, and mitigating climate change [23]. However, research in the field of sustainable consumption has increasingly focused on sustainable foods, with studies on this topic accounting for more than one-third of all research on sustainable consumption [19]. One such study reported that reducing consumption of dietary meant can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions related to food consumption [24]. Furthermore, in a study on Singaporean views of plant-based meat alternatives, the Influence of Presumed Media Influence (IPMI) model was employed to explore how prior beliefs influence the willingness to pay more for plant-based meat [25]. The study involved a survey of 1008 adult Singaporeans and revealed that paying attention to media messages reporting the benefits of consuming plant-based meat was positively correlated with the assumption that others also paid attention to these messages; such assumptions influenced the participants’ attitudes and perceived social norms regarding paying more for plant-based meat alternatives. Notably, preexisting environmental and health consciousness were identified significant predictors of media message attention, underscoring the role of prior beliefs in the IPMI model [25].

Further assessments of sustainable diets, the environment, system boundaries, and scenario development are crucial for enhancing consumer awareness of meat alternatives, understanding the environmental effects of meat consumption, and investigating the effects of dietary changes across various population groups and geographic regions. Theorists have suggested that greater attention should be given to cultural factors in governmental policies focused on promoting citizen participation. For example, because relationships are crucial in Sinitic cultures, governments should focus on interpersonal interactions in encouraging participation in addressing environmental issues [26]. The present conducted an in-depth investigation of cultural factors influencing such participation by drawing from cultural practice theory.

2.2. Cultural Practice Theory and Sustainable Consumption

Cultural practice theory, which was deeply influenced by Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of practice, stresses examining contextual factors affecting consumers, such as the roles of the media and shopping malls in their lives, and investigating how consumers express their identity or sense of group belonging through consumption of specific goods. Application of cultural practice theory involves consideration of symbols; cognitive, structural, and social relationships; and interactive processes [27].

Several studies have applied cultural practice theory to investigate sustainable food consumption in the United Kingdom, France, and Germany. Ethnographic studies of household food waste have identified consumer practices that are embedded in daily social relations, space, and time [28,29]. Some scholars employed cultural practice theory to develop the sensory ethnography research method, in which video shooting was combined with interviews to investigate household energy consumption, identify consumer behavior patterns, and develop energy-saving mobile phone applications [30]. Paddock [31] studied household food consumption by employing stratified sampling and conducting in-depth interviews with students, members of small families, professionals, retirees, and unemployed people residing in the suburbs of London. To study factors related to sustainable eating, they focused on the intersection of social, psychological, and environmental factors. The results of their study indicated that life course, relocation, and social factors (those relating to family or friends) had considerable influence on sustainable eating.

Brons and Oosterveer [32] explored the growing relevance of sustainable food consumption in the context of global climate change, highlighting the gap between its importance and the accessibility of such options. Their study investigated challenges related to accessing sustainable food from the perspective of cultural practice theory by interviewing and observing students in Paris. They identified four key indicators (i.e., recruitment mode, engagement mode, commitment level, and bundles of practices), revealed three distinct types of access challenges, and highlighted the multifaceted nature of sustainable food access, which is influenced not only by financial and individual factors but also other considerations. Their findings underscore the importance of understanding the social practices involved in accessing sustainable food in developing strategies for improving accessibility.

Pfeiffer et al. [33] studied the practices of 10 consumers to explore the reasons underlying the increasing popularity of eating out in Germany. Their study revealed that nutritional knowledge and the concept of sustainable eating had limited influence on the decision of their participants to eat out. Instead, these participants’ eating practices were mainly influenced by the pace of daily life, work, and everyday routines. Furthermore, most participants in that study indicated that they were not confident in the quality of restaurant food.

Through a multi-method design, which incorporated participatory observation, document analysis, and in-depth interviews with members of eight local food consumption initiatives in the Galician region of Spain, a study discovered motivations for sustainable food purchasing that included a desire to consume a healthy diet, pro-environmental and social values, environmental awareness, and feeling a connection to Galician rural areas. The study reported that motivations for participating in conscious consumption initiatives are influenced by basic needs (i.e., affordability and accessibility of organic, low-carbon, and fair-trade goods), sociopolitical goals, and social and psychological needs (e.g., connectedness, autonomy, and control over purchasing decisions) [34].

Most of the aforementioned studies were conducted in Western Europe and North America. The current expands cultural practice theory because it investigates people’s perceptions regarding habitual consumption of sustainable food and the challenges they encounter in doing so within an Asian context, thereby highlighting cultural differences and the practical implications of this context.

2.3. Context of Taiwan

Since 2008, several rigorous studies have explored environmental communication in Taiwan by focusing on media representations of climate change, conducting discourse analysis, and completing corpus analysis, and so forth [35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42]. For instance, a study [36] evaluated the content, characteristics, and quality of public communication regarding global warming and reported a lack of macro-level public policy discussions on new media platforms. That study asserted that governments should focus on communicating information on climate change from multiple perspectives. This would involve emphasizing the relevance of climate change to individuals; proposing solutions; and utilizing interpersonal channels, word-of-mouth communication, and public transportation advertisements to increase awareness among young people about global warming issues.

A telephone survey study [39] of 1007 Taiwanese adults investigated the factors shaping public attitudes toward climate change. That study indicated that Taiwanese people supported some policies related to climate change but exhibited differing attitudes toward climate change policies. It also suggested that the government encourage more public participation to increase the efficacy of climate change policies and inform the public about the potential effects of climate change on their lives.

Because of the influence of nongovernmental organizations that focus on factors such as food safety and environmental protection, Taiwanese media groups have continually produced and shared food-related content in the public sphere, covering themes such as food sovereignty, returning to nature, low-carbon diets, organic agriculture, and animal welfare [43].

A study on the practice of low-carbon lifestyles in Taiwan [37] indicated that Taiwan’s government should implement environmental protection policies to strengthen community ties as a means of increasing awareness of environmental protection; it also revealed that economic and time factors should be considered in developing incentives that effectively encourage individuals to change their lifestyles. That study also indicated that previous policies promoting low-carbon lifestyles had not only reinforced gender imbalances in Taiwanese society but also neglected to consider the relevance of civic responsibility, social networks, capital constraints (e.g., time, money, and space), traditional values (e.g., early experience and community identity), and material conditions [37].

A 2013 study identified various factors that positively affected the willingness of individuals to adopt a low-carbon diet, including sex (female), age (>51 years), retirement status, income (monthly income of NT$80,000 or more), and identification with a healthy and sustainable lifestyle and environmental protection [43]. However, educational background had little effect on consumer attitudes toward a low-carbon diet. In another study that focused on consumer awareness of organic food, consumer motivations were revealed to be influenced by value for money, convenience, and marketing promotion [44].

An analysis of the monthly Google searches conducted during a 10-year period indicated an increasing global interest in healthy and sustainable diets. Searches have increased for keywords such as “healthy diet” (30%), “whole food” (16%), “safe food” (31%), and “local food” (20%) [10]. According to the study, among the research articles on healthy and sustainable foods in Asia that were published in international journals within a 10-year period, articles published about Taiwan predominantly focused on organic diets [45,46,47]. In sum, previous studies about the consumers’ perceptions and practices of sustainable food in Taiwan did not explore the narratives of diverse consumers to understand potential reasons and contexts promoting or hindering the development of sustainable food habits in Taiwan. The experiences and perceptions of various types of consumers regarding cultural values, practical and structural constraints related to sustainable food consumption, information sources, and social networks remain poorly understood. The present study hypothesizes that consumers from different backgrounds and life stages prioritize specific aspects of sustainable food consumption differently; material conditions, capital constraints, media use, and cultural values may influence the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral perspectives of consumers.

The present study extended the literature on sustainable food and explored the consumption narratives of consumers to reveal the influence of the interaction of cultural elements, media use, life course, material conditions, social networks, and the emotional significance of food. The research questions are as follows.

• What are the perceptions and habits of consumers regarding sustainable eating? How do consumers perceive the quality of sustainable food?
• What are the routines and behaviors of consumers in relation to sustainable food consumption and how are they related to other environmental protection behaviors, if any?
• How do material conditions, social or cultural resources, information sources, media use, and various experiences in the life course affect the sustainable eating habits of consumers? Do cultural resources (early experiences and social networks) and the emotional meaning of food affect the decisions of consumers to practice sustainable eating. If so, how?

3. Method

The present study analyzed the narratives of Taiwanese people practicing sustainable eating by applying cultural practice theory. The study adopted the stratification framework used in Paddock’s UK study [31], modifying the framework on the basis of the 2014 Taiwan census to adapt it to Taiwan’s demographics and to identify its demographic compositions (i.e., university students, homemakers, professionals, and retirees). In total, 30 individuals who lived in urban or suburban areas in northern Taipei (including Taipei City and New Taipei City) participated in the present study. Information on their educational backgrounds and work experience was collected, and informed consent was obtained from them before interviews were conducted.

The interview process was supported by four research assistants who were trained to use a semistructured interview guide. Before the interviews, an interviewer explained the meaning of “sustainable food” by using the definition specified in the manual on low-carbon diets published by the Ministry of Environment of Taiwan in 2011. This manual, which is specific to the dietary habits in Taiwan, balances nutritional values and environmental protection to encourage healthy eating practices that are also environmentally friendly. The manual comprises five chapters covering an introduction to food and global warming, sustainable food purchasing, cooking methods, food waste management and food recycling, and recipes.

From 2015 to 2016, a pilot study was conducted, and the interview guide was revised on the basis of the results from the pilot study. Most of the interviews were conducted between July 2018 and August 2019, and each interview lasted 1–2 h. After consent was obtained from the participants, the interviewers visited the homes or workplaces of several participants to observe them or accompanied them as they were purchasing food. The participants’ background characteristics are listed in

Table 1. Participant information.

	Pseudonym	Occupation	Age	Sex	Note
1	Aaron	Student	24	M
2	Ben	Student	25	M
3	Catherine	Student	28	F
4	Dorothy	Student	25	F
5	Emily	Student	25	F
6	Flora	Student	24	F
7	Gloria	Student	24	F
8	Heather	Student	24	F
9	Iris	Student	24	F
10	Jasmine	Student	24	F
11	Kaylee	Housewife	48	F	Two children, part-time in jewelry processing
12	Laura	Housewife	54	F	Three children; part-time market vendor
13	Melody	Housewife	51	F	Three children
14	Nancy	Housewife	50	F	Two children, part-time industrial printing
15	Olivia	Management in Finance	41	F	Two children
16	Pauline	Freelance journalist	41	F	Two children, living with mother and husband
17	Priscilla	Ph.D. student	40	F	Two children
18	Ryan	Doctor	35	M	Two children; Husband of R2
19	Ross	Doctor	35	F	Husband of R1
20	Marvin	Researcher	41	M	Husband ofS2, one child
21	Mia	Physician	44	F	Wife of S1
22	Tom	Architect	44	M	Husband of T2
23	Tracy	Landscaper	44	F	Wife of T1
24	Uda	Professor	43	F	Single
25	Victor	Retiree	64	M	Husband of V2, Former executive of a food company
26	Vera	Retiree	63	F	Husband of V1, Two children, a housewife
27	William	Retiree	70	M	Former representative of the electronic components business
28	Willow	Retiree	52	F	Former handyman
29	Yang	Retiree	63	F	Formal government employee
30	Zhang	Retiree	57	M	Former elementary school teacher

.

The interview guide was based on the operational concepts derived from cultural practice theory, which are mostly based on qualitative studies on sustainable consumption [28,29,32,33,37]. Several codes were established a priori, such as life stages, sex, information sources, traditional values, capital constraints, and material conditions. Various forms of basic demographic information, including sex, age, educational background, occupation, religion, marriage status, and location, were also collected. A semi-structured interview guide (Appendix A) was created to guide the flow of the interviews, during which follow-up questions were asked. Before the interviews started, the goal of the study was explained to the participants, and oral informed consent was obtained from them. All interviews were recorded and transcribed. Pseudonyms were created for each participant to ensure their anonymity. The data from various demographic groups were grouped to enable identification of similarities and differences between demographic groups. The transcripts were coded under the following themes: cultural values (childhood experiences), cultural values (social networks), resources, class, convenience, food price, life course, fixation and moving, behaviors, socialization, information and media, emotional meaning, perception, material conditions, food quality, and visual records of household consumption. Grounded theory [48] was employed to organize the data.

4. Results

The present study was divided into three parts. The first part focused on perceptions and behaviors involving sustainable food consumption in relation to food quality. The following subsections further explain the supplementary factors influencing consumer behavior. These factors encompass material conditions, information sources, media consumption, and life events. The present study also analyzed consumer narratives regarding the effects of cultural resources, such as childhood experiences and social networks and the emotional significance of food.

4.1. Perception and Behaviors Regarding Sustainable Food Consumption

University Students: Among the university students, awareness of sustainable food was high. However, they frequently encountered obstacles in accessing sustainable food, citing factors such as high prices, time constraints, and limited access to kitchen facilities. For example, one participant (Ben) reported that food magazines substantially increased his awareness of sustainable diets, which surpassed that of his peers. He developed a greater interest in food nutrition and subsequently food sourcing and food mileage, and he understood that consuming locally sourced foods enhances national self-sufficiency, reduces carbon emissions, and benefits the local economy. He also perceived local foods to be safer than imported foods because of their higher traceability.

Despite having a high level of awareness, numerous students reported that their interest in sustainable diets was primarily driven by personal health concerns. A participant (Catherine) noted a decline in her health after starting university because of her limited access to quality food. During a 1-year exchange program in Paris, she learned to cook out of necessity because most students there prepared their meals. This experience led to her recognizing the lack of food literacy in Taiwan. After returning to Taiwan, Catherine sought rental apartments with kitchens, which was challenging because most student accommodations prohibit cooking, which leads to students eating out frequently. Some apartments only provided a microwave oven and a rice cooker.

Financial constraints also affected the food choices of students. A participant (Aaron) expressed a willingness to pay more for higher-quality food but questioned the reasonableness of prices. The students generally prioritized cleanliness and nutrition but struggled to find dining options that met their standards for cleanliness and nutrition while providing environmental benefits. Many of the students used their own chopsticks, straws, and bags when they dined out. They also discovered that restaurants often failed to provide adequate information about their environmental practices or prioritized customer convenience over environmental protection by, for example, providing plastic straws and bags for free. A participant (Flora) mentioned that if she had her own kitchen, she would be willing to spend more money to buy locally sourced foods.

High-Income Professionals: Unlike the students, highly educated, high-income professionals did not view price as a primary factor influencing their sustainable eating habits. They believed transparency, food quality, and environmental benefits to be key considerations. These participants carefully balanced dining out with home cooking to maintain control over their food choices and preferred whole and organic foods. They limited their consumption of restaurant food and conscientiously managed their nutritional intake. They also had more economic, social, and cultural capital, enabling them to purchase foods from various online and offline networks and sources. Several of them reported concerns about the excessive packaging used for online orders and restaurant takeout meals. Because of their busy schedules, many of them dined out at least once a day and experienced difficulties in identifying dining options that were primarily vegetable-based. They also wished to receive more information from restaurants, such as that regarding their food sources and use of additives.

Middle-Aged Homemakers: Middle-aged homemakers, particularly those working part-time, often prepared light, healthy meals when they were at home but ate out during work hours. Their primary considerations for ingredients included seasonality, organic certification, local sourcing, and support for small farmers. These homemakers frequently shopped at wet markets and considered the quality and diversity of produce obtained from known vendors to be key considerations. A participant (Kaylee) indicated that she preferred purchasing fresh, locally sourced vegetables, acknowledging the environmental benefits of reduced transportation emissions. However, price was a major factor influencing the homemakers’ purchasing decisions.

Retirees: Numerous retirees were initially unfamiliar with terms such as “sustainable food” or “low-carbon diet”. However, after learning these concepts, they recognized that their eating habits were already aligned with sustainable practices. In their diets, they prioritized health, freshness, seasonality, and flavor over prices. Because they had more free time, the retirees were able to balance their meals more effectively. They preferred shopping at nearby supermarkets or traditional markets, exhibiting less interest in organic stores or small farmers’ markets. A retiree (Willow) said that she became more cautious about her food choices after she experienced an illness 7 years previously.

An increasing awareness of the environmental effects of food consumption, including issues such as kitchen waste and packaging, was identified across all demographic groups. Some participants adjusted their shopping habits to minimize packaging waste, opting for traditional markets over online stores. A participant (Priscilla), who became an environmentalist because of her parents’ involvement in a Buddhist environmental group, avoided excessive packaging, cycled to traditional markets, and used reusable bags. She also supported sustainable food practices through non-profit activities and group purchases on social media.

The participants, who had diverse backgrounds, considered food transparency and quality to be key factors and were influenced by increasing concern about food safety. Their efforts to promote sustainable food consumption manifested in behaviors such as reading food labels, visiting farms, and participating in educational activities related to food production. These behaviors indicate a collective shift toward more informed and environmentally conscious food choices.

Although awareness of sustainable food consumption was high across demographic groups, the participants’ behaviors and perceptions were shaped by factors such as age, income, cultural influences, and practical constraints. Specifically, the university students and middle-aged homemakers encountered unique challenges related to accessing sustainable food, primarily because of financial and logistical barriers. By contrast, the high-income professionals and retirees could more readily integrate sustainable practices into their daily lives. Overall, the findings of this study underscore the need for targeted educational initiatives and policies that address the specific needs and constraints of each demographic group to effectively promote sustainable food consumption.

For the participants, life events such as entering university, getting pregnant and having children, going abroad, and moving caused them to change their eating habits. Numerous participants indicated that having children was a major reason for changes in their eating habits, including their increased focus on nutrition, safety, and consuming organic foods. Among the retirees and housewives that we interviewed, three indicated that the major changes in their eating habits resulted from the occurrence of lifestyle-related health problems, such as stroke, diabetes, rectal cancer, and high blood pressure, in their families.

4.2. Information Use and Sustainable Consumption

This subsection discusses the role of information sources in shaping sustainable consumption behaviors, particularly in the context of food knowledge. This study analyzed the student, professional, homemaker, and retiree demographic groups to determine the influence of media outlets, cultural factors, and social interactions on their sustainable food practices. The findings revealed the crucial roles of online media, cultural beliefs, and generational differences in the dissemination of information regarding and adoption of sustainable consumption habits.

Dissemination of information on sustainable food practices is crucial in fostering sustainable consumption habits. This subsection discusses the primary sources of food-related information among various demographic groups and how these sources influence sustainable consumption behaviors. The participants were asked about their primary sources of food-related information and their engagement with sustainable consumption practices.

Students: Most student participants identified online media as their main source of food-related information, including that regarding sustainable food. However, approximately half of the students did not actively seek out food information, whereas the other half were proactive, obtaining such information from magazines, online platforms, social media, and restaurants. A student (Aaron) reported learning about the environmental effects of food consumption through social media posts by environmental organizations and about the concept of carbon footprints through restaurants. Another student (Catherine), who had studied in France, shared sustainable food information with her peers and continued the habit she had formed of seeking information from food critics and news websites after returning to Taiwan. Some students asked their friends to share nutrition knowledge with them.

The student participants emphasized the pivotal role of family, particularly mothers, in imparting cooking knowledge. They also frequently searched for recipes online. A male student identified a cultural barrier and missed opportunity in his food education, noting that his mother’s belief that cooking was a woman’s job prevented him from learning about cooking and sustainable cooking methods.

Middle-aged homemakers: The participants who were middle-aged full-time homemakers predominantly relied on television programs for food information, with the Internet serving as an key source for recipes. One homemaker (Kaylee) indicated that her consumption habits were influenced by programs on the Public Television Service, her pro-vegetarianism religious beliefs, and promotional campaigns by university clubs. She recalled adopting the practice of carrying personal tableware after participating in a promotional campaign by National Taiwan University and viewing related content produced by the Public Television Station.

Kaylee noted that she rarely used social media but read environment-related content shared by friends. Another homemaker (Nancy) expressed a strong interest in television programs that showcased the lives and innovative agricultural practices of younger-generation farmers, which provided her with new insights into sustainable food production.

Professionals: The participants who were professionals had sufficient free time, social networks, and capital to acquire sustainable food information both online and offline. Notably, they use multiple channels selectively to acquire various types of ingredients, including direct purchases from farmers, organic stores, and chain supermarkets.

Retirees: The participants who were retirees relied on expert opinions from books and television programs to obtain food and health information. They also watched online videos to learn cooking techniques and make informed decisions when purchasing cooking equipment. A retiree (William) reported that his eating habits transformed after he read books by Japanese-born surgeon Hiromi Shinya and watched Japanese television programs to learn about food and health. He and his wife regularly watched health-related programs on television, YouTube, and LINE. Another retiree (Willow) primarily used the Internet and television for information, searching for recipes on Google and watching food programs that regularly discussed environmental issues. One retiree (Zhang) watched YouTube videos to learn about cooking methods and appliances. The retirees also obtained information about recipes through online social media groups and participated in neighborhood resident activities (e.g., visiting farms). In general, the retirees had ample time and social, cultural, and economic capital, all of which facilitated their adoption of sustainable diets. Childhood influence also played a role. A retiree (Yang) started garden farming after retirement, and she recalled that in her childhood, she assisted her parents with farming tasks, which helped her to gain more knowledge and hands-on practice related to sustainable farming. Yang also regularly bought meat from a specific vendor at the wet market that she frequented, and the vendor answered her questions about food sources and preparation techniques.

The present study revealed that different age groups had different preferences with respect to information sources, which were influenced by cultural factors and media consumption habits. Online media were identified as a crucial information source for younger individuals, whereas television and books were more influential among middle-aged and older participants. Cultural beliefs, such as those related to Buddhism and local support for vegetarianism, played a key role in promoting sustainable consumption.

Understanding the diverse sources of information on sustainable consumption and their effects on sustainable consumption behaviors is essential in designing effective educational campaigns and policies. Relevant authorities can improve their dissemination of information regarding sustainable food practices and promotion of environmentally friendly consumption habits by adjusting to the media preferences and cultural contexts of various demographic groups.

4.3. Discussion

The present study reveals that different demographic groups encounter different challenges with respect to sustainable consumption, indicating that additional policy research should be conducted to identify means of overcoming these challenges. For example, university students in Taiwan commonly encounter problems associated with imbalanced, unhealthy, or environmentally unfriendly dining when eating out. Thus, government guidance is required to encourage restaurants to prioritize sustainable eating. Furthermore, for university students, lacking an adequate cooking environments is a challenge preventing sustainable consumption. To overcome this, universities could provide educational and accessible cooking facilities. Given that numerous participants identified cost as a barrier, additional market mechanisms and government support policies should be implemented to increase the affordability and accessibility of sustainable eating for a broader population. Subsidies, tax incentives for sustainable food producers, and financial incentives for consumers could be effective strategies.

The transparency of food footprint information was a concern raised by numerous participants. This is an area that the government can improve on by providing enhanced guidance on sustainable eating. Government initiatives should prioritize dissemination of information regarding the environmental effects of food choices. This could involve mandating labeling of food products to indicate their carbon footprint and other sustainability metrics. Communication channels could also be adjusted to suit the preferences of specific demographic groups to enhance the effectiveness of these efforts. For example, the Internet and social media should be used to reach younger populations, whereas sustainability content should be incorporated into television programs to effectively engage middle-aged and retired individuals.

A participant indicated that the government should assess the feasibility of introducing an edible landscape policy in Taiwan. Such a policy, which integrates food production into urban landscapes, can effectively enhance public awareness and engagement with sustainable food practices. The introduction of edible plants into public spaces may encourage communities to participate in local food production and can thereby contribute to a reduction in transportation emissions and foster connections with sustainable food sources.

The present study highlights the importance of nuanced policy research and targeted interventions for promoting sustainable food consumption across diverse demographic groups. By addressing specific challenges (e.g., cost, accessibility, and information transparency) and leveraging appropriate communication channels, policymakers can foster a more sustainable and health-conscious society.

5. Conclusions

The present study analyzed various perceptions and behaviors related to sustainable food consumption across several demographic groups and highlighted the crucial role of information sources and targeted policy interventions. In the present study, university students exhibited a high awareness of sustainable food but encountered major barriers, such as high costs, time constraints, and limited access to kitchen facilities; high-income professionals prioritized food quality and environmental benefits over price; and middle-aged homemakers and retirees preferred seasonal, organic, and locally sourced foods. Furthermore, these demographic groups differed in terms of their motivations and challenges related to sustainable consumption.

These findings underscore the crucial role of information in shaping sustainable consumption behaviors. Online media were particularly influential among younger individuals, whereas television and books were more influential for the older demographic groups. Cultural factors, such as religious beliefs, also substantially influenced consumption patterns, highlighting the need for culturally sensitive communication strategies.

The policy recommendations derived from the study findings include implementation of tailored interventions to address the different challenges encountered by different demographic groups. For university students, creating supportive environments for cooking and encouraging sustainable practices in restaurants are essential. Financial incentives and market mechanisms are required to increase the affordability of sustainable food and address the cost barriers reported by numerous participants. Enhancing the transparency of food footprint information and using appropriate communication channels can help promote sustainable eating habits. By implementing these targeted policies and interventions, governments can more effectively promote sustainable food consumption and contribute to the overall health and sustainability of society.

In conclusion, the present study highlights the multifaceted nature of sustainable food consumption and the importance of tailored policy responses. By addressing specific demographic needs and leveraging appropriate information channels, policymakers can effectively promote sustainable eating practices and create a more environmentally conscious and health-oriented society. Education, media, and informal channels play crucial roles in shaping sustainable behaviors and have potential to challenge and change gender stereotypes related to cooking and food preparation. By understanding and addressing these factors, policymakers can establish a more sustainable and equitable food system in Taiwan.

Limitations and Future Research

The present study has several limitations. The primary limitation is its regional focus on northern Taiwan. The participants were only sampled from northern Taiwan and only from the metropolitan areas of Taipei City and New Taipei City; with a combined population of nearly 7 million, these two areas account for more than one-fifth of Taiwan’s population. This regional focus highlights the profound effect of extreme urbanization on the daily lives of consumers in this region. However, in other regions of Taiwan, which comprise more scattered agricultural areas, the challenges and opportunities pertaining to sustainable food consumption may be different. Thus, the present findings may not be generalizable to these less urbanized areas.

On the basis of its findings, the present study provides key recommendations for sustainable food policies. These include increasing the affordability of sustainable diets, providing incentives for sustainable habits, and encouraging collaborations with restaurants and food vendors to offer healthier and more environmentally friendly options. These practices can help foster a more sustainable and health-conscious food culture across Taiwan. In addition, to increase their geographical and demographic diversity, future studies should employ a broader geographic scope and larger sample sizes across diverse groups. This would allow for a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable food consumption behaviors and the effectiveness of various policy interventions. Addressing these limitations in further research can assist policymakers and educators in more effectively supporting a transition toward sustainable food practices in Taiwan and other places.

Cultural differences also play a major role in shaping food consumption behaviors. For example, although Japan is geographically near to Taiwan, it exhibits patterns distinct from those observed in Taiwan because of differences in housing infrastructure, media coverage, and the prevalence of sustainable eating concepts among young people. Japan’s implementation of food education since 2010 contrasts with Taiwan’s more recent passing of the Food and Agriculture Education Act in 2022. Future research should observe the effects of this legislation on food and agriculture education and daily life across various regions of Taiwan. Researchers should also consider comparing the sustainable food campaigns conducted in Japan and Taiwan. Researchers may also assess the cost of sustainable eating, measure and compare the effectiveness of various media communication channels, and conduct large-scale quantitative studies to understand the challenges encountered by various demographic segments in adopting sustainable eating practices.