Next Article in Journal
New Interpretation of Human–Land Relation: Differentiated Impacts of Global Demographic Transition on Carbon Emissions
Previous Article in Journal
The Impact of a Company’s Management Strategy on Its Profitability, Stability, and Growth: A Focus on the Information Security Industry
Previous Article in Special Issue
Effect of the Spading Machine on Various Soil Parameters at Different Tillage Depths
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 16
Issue 12
10.3390/su16125167
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Agro-Ecological Practice for Sustaining Higher Productivity of Fennel Plant Using Alley Cropping System and Endophytic Fungi

by
Sabah A. Hammad
1,
Magdi I. Bahnasy
2,
Nurah M. Alzamel
3,*,
Mona F. A. Hussein
2,
Ahmed A. A. Mahmoud
4 and
Naglaa Loutfy
1,*
1
Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Qena 83523, Egypt
2
Department of Timber Trees, Horticulture Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza 11571, Egypt
3
Department of Biology, College of Sciences and Humanities, Shaqra University, Shaqra 11961, Saudi Arabia
4
Plant Pathology Institute, Agriculture Research Center, Giza 11571, Egypt
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(12), 5167; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16125167
Submission received: 25 April 2024 / Revised: 9 June 2024 / Accepted: 9 June 2024 / Published: 18 June 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Soil Management and Crop Production Research)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Sustainable ecological agriculture is achieved by regulating the benefits of trees. The application of leguminous trees as alley cropping protects and increases soil fertility, improves the quality of water by intercepting pesticides, changes the local climate, improves biodiversity, and thus improves productivity. In order to evaluate the impact of alley cropping upon the growth and productivity attributes of fennel, an experiment was carried out during two seasons. The experiment included eight treatments. Fennel seeds were cultivated between Sesbania alleys and treated with N and endophytic fungi according to the eight treatments. After harvesting the fennel, different parameters were determined and biochemical analyses were conducted. All of the alley cropping treatments showed remarkable superiority in all measures of fennel growth and productivity compared to the sole crop treatment. Among the different alley cropping treatments, applying Sesbania at 4 m spacing with N fertilizer and EF increased most of the studied parameters in terms of the least number of days from planting until harvesting of fennel, herb dry weight, number of umbels, fruit yield, essential oil, N, P, and K content, and pigments. In contrast, the highest plant height was recorded with fennel–Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF. Applying fennel–Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF treatment resulted in higher stem diameter and increased the number of main branches compared to the other treatments.

1. Introduction

In Egypt, newly reclaimed soils suffer from a lack of organic matter and nutrients and poor soil texture, and violent winds prevail in these areas. Also, the decreases in relative humidity and increases in temperature in the summer, especially in Upper Egypt, combine to affect the productivity of most economic plants. However, alley cropping can preserve soil water, as it provides shade, reduces wind speed, and improves soil texture [1,2]. Improved productivity in multispecies agro-ecosystems compared with that of mono-specific agro-ecosystems may be attributed to two main processes (complementary and facilitation) that result in induced resource use [3]. Moreover, legume trees provide additional benefits for resource use, since they can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and make it accessible to the alleyed plant; this could reduce the cost of using chemical fertilizers [4]. Also, nitrogen fixation improves soil conditions for subsistence farmers [5]. Extensive dependence on chemical fertilizers has shown harmful impacts on the environment, along with more residual effects when agrochemicals are above their safety levels.
Numerous studies emphasized the role of colonization between different crops and endophytic fungi by inducing systemic resistance to different stresses [6,7,8,9]. The accumulation of protective metabolites and osmoprotectants and the activation of antioxidant substances give rise to such resistance, which prevent damage caused by pathogens and insects. When comparing endophyte-colonized plants to non-endophyte-colonized plants, these effects coordinate to enhance plant growth [9]. Ecosystems comprising microorganisms have an important role for these systems. De Felício et al. [10] reported that there are millions of unidentified microbial strains, yet only 5% of the many fungal species have been investigated in ecosystems. Scientists have isolated and identified over a million endophytic fungi from different tissues of various plant species [11]. Endophytic fungi can live in host plant tissue, forming symbiotic relationships without causing any damage, while providing resistance for the host plant against different stresses [12,13]. They are natural components of the plant micro-ecosystem that positively affect the physiological activities of the host plant in several ways, including producing hormones such as indoleacetic acid, biosynthesizing and acquiring nutrients for plant growth and development, secreting stress adaptor metabolites to protect the host plant from the invasion of herbivores and pathogens, and improving the host’s adaptability to abiotic stressors. In return, plants provide habitats and nutrients for endophytic fungi [14,15]. Endophytic fungi are capable of producing a rich variety of bioactive substances and can produce compounds that are identical or similar to pharmacological activities identified from plants [16]. They produce a range of metabolites of different chemical classes, including alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds. Some compounds show pleiotropic and interesting pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-malarial, and antitumor properties.
The fennel plant (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.), a member of family Umbeliferae (Apiaceae), is an aromatic short-lived herb native to Europe and cultivated in China, India, and Egypt [17]. Its fruits contain volatile oil used for many purposes such as regulating peristaltic functions of the gastrointestinal tract and relieving intestinal spasms. Also, the essential oil relieves muscular and rheumatic pains, while the fruits have a traditional reputation as an aid to weight loss and longevity [18].
Fennel is a cool season crop, mainly grown during the winter season. Dry and cold weather favors higher seed production. A temperature of 15–30 °C is the optimum. Fennel is an ideal seed spice crop suited for inclusion with other short-duration component crops like carrots, garlic, onions, and chillies. Moreover, it is desirable to include leguminous crops or other suitable crops that exhibit less competition for light, nutrients, water, and space [19]. Valiki, et al. [20] investigated the effect of different levels of compost as organic matter and NPK fertilizer on the growth, yield, and essential oil of fennel. They proved that plant growth parameters, the number of umbrellas/plant, the number of umbelets/umbrella, seed yield, and oil yield were significantly improved with different rates of compost and NPK fertilizer. On the other side, Yamoah and Burleigh [21] studied the influence of Sesbania prunings with moderate rates of N and P on bean and maize yields in alley cropping. Results revealed that the bean yield in 6 m alleys was about twice that in 2 m alleys. The optimum conditions for higher bean yield were found to be an alley width of 6 m and N at a rate of 30 kg/ha. Higher maize yield was attained from 8 m alleys with N at a rate of 40 kg/ha.
However, intercropping of fennel–fenugreek with bio-fertilizers addition increased the yield and volatile oil content of fennel fruits and created a more sustainable cropping system than sole crop for the two species under low-input conditions [22]. Therefore, this study mainly focused on enhancing the productivity of fennel as an alleyed crop in between Sesbania sesban with nitrogen fertilizer and endophytic fungi amendments, as another option for sustaining fennel yields in newly reclaimed soils.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Site

The current experiment was carried out in the Agricultural Research Station of Al- Marashda, Qena Governorate (26°9′ N, 32°42′ E), Agricultural Research Center, during the two seasons of 2020/2021 and 2021/2022. This region is located in the newly reclaimed soil of Upper Egypt. Different chemical and physical characteristics of the studied soil are illustrated in Table 1. Depending on the plants’ needs and soil conditions, drip irrigation was used for watering in this investigation. Chemical analysis of the irrigation water is shown in Table 2.

2.2. Plant Materials and Procedures

Fresh seeds of Sesbania sesban were collected from vigorous trees adjacent to the area, while the fennel seeds were brought from the Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Research Department, ARC, Egypt. Seeds of Sesbania at the rate of 5 g/m were sown in rows at three different spacings, i.e., 2, 4, and 6 m apart on 15 February of 2020, and allowed to grow without pruning until the date of fennel crop sowing on 15 November of the same year, when the height of Sesbania reached approximately 2 m. A week after tree coppicing, seeds (fruits) of fennel were sown as 3–4 seeds/hill in between Sesbania alleys at a distance of 40 cm between hills and 60 cm between rows, and the seedlings were thinned 40 days after sowing to leave 2 plants per hill. P fertilizer was added for all the experimental plots as calcium superphosphate (15.5% P2O5) at a dose of 50 kg ha−1 over the two seasons. Meanwhile, N fertilizer was added at a dose of 100 kg·ha−1 as ammonium sulphate (20.6% N) only according to the treatments. Also, according to the treatments, endophytic fungal (Chaetomium globosum) was added to the fennel plants as drench to the soil 3 times/season. The first fungal dose was added when the seeds were sowed, and then every month at a rate of 100 mL/plant. However, the Sesbania trees were pruned periodically at a height of 1.25 m using hand shears, starting from 15 November for both seasons until the end of fennel season in mid-May. After seven weeks of planting fennel, the Sesbania trees were coppiced again to provide nutrients and reduce light competition. Leaves (as green manuring) of the prunings were mechanically incorporated with the soil under the fennel plants. Sesbania trees were coppiced to provide nutrients and reduce light competition. Leaves (as green manuring) of the prunings were mechanically incorporated with the soil under fennel plants.

2.3. Fungal Isolation, Identification, and Cultivation

Leaves of Sesbania sesban trees were collected from a farm near the experimental area. The leaf samples were properly washed with tap water followed by sterile distilled water. The surfaces of leaves were sterilized by sequential immersion in 75% ethyl alcohol for 1 min followed by 4% sodium hypochlorite for 3 min, and finally in 75% ethyl alcohol for 30 s. Then, the samples were rinsed using sterile distilled water and shade drying [23]. The leaves were cut into small pieces and placed on pre-poured glucose-Czapek’s agar plates according to [24], and then incubated at 28 ± 2° C for 2–3 weeks in a microbiological incubator until the desired fungus growth was achieved, i.e., Chaetomium globosum. It contained mycelia and spores; the filtration was carried out with Watman filter paper no. 2 for a spore suspension. The suspension was adjusted to a concentration of 5 × 107 spores/mL.

2.4. Experimental Layout

The experiment involved a completely randomized plot design, and the plots were distributed into the field in triplicates; each contained 3 plots in 36 m2; thus, the experiment included a total of 72 plots. Eight treatments of fennel were alleyed with Sesbania, with N fertilizer at 100 kg N ha−1 as well as endophytic fungal (EF) at a Chaetomium globosum suspension rate of 100 mL/plant as follows:
T1: fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only.
T2: fennel sole crop + EF only.
T3: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing.
T4: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF.
T5: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing.
T6: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF.
T7: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing.
T8: fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF.

2.5. Recorded Data

Harvesting of fennel plants was applied after maturity followed by determination of the following parameters: number of days from sowing until harvesting, plant height (cm), stem diameter (cm), number of main branches, number of umbels/plant, fruit yield/plant (g), fruit yield/hec (kg), and herb dry weight/plant (g). The essential oil percentage was determined in 30 g of grounded dry fruits followed by extraction using the water-distillation method according to [25].

2.6. Biochemical Analysis

The nitrogen content was measured in fennel herb using the micro Kjeldahl method described by [26]. The phosphorus content of the herbs was estimated based on [27]. The herbal potassium content was determined according to [28]. The photosynthetic pigment contents (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotenoids) were determined as mg·g−1 using the 80% acetone extraction method according to that described by [29].
The statistical analysis was performed using Duncan’s test at 0.05% and simple correlation coefficients with the SPSS program (v20) after [30].

3. Results

3.1. Effect of Alley Cropping and EF on Growth Parameters of Fennel

The effects of alley cropping and EF on the number of days from fennel plant sowing until harvesting, stem diameter, and herb dry weight are shown in Table 3. The data show that the number of days from sowing fennel seeds until harvesting significantly varied, as they were affected by the impacts of alley cropping and EF treatments.
Among the different alley cropping treatments, the fewest number of days (144.33 and 149 days) were recorded in fennel in T6 followed by T8. This trait was highest in fennel T1 (186.33 and 190.33 days).
Results in the same table indicate that fennel stem diameter was significantly affected by the different alley cropping treatments. The T8 treatment produced (2.37 and 2.23 cm) larger fennel stem diameters, whereas smaller stem diameters (1.40 and 1.50 cm) were recorded for T3. Also, the impact of alley cropping and EF was significant on fennel dry weight/plant; the higher values were 107.33 and 108.67 g in the first and second seasons for T6, respectively. Treatment T8 resulted in 96.33 and 101.0 g for herb dry weight/plant in the first and second seasons, respectively. Meanwhile, the lowest herb dry weight/plant was recorded for T1, with the treatment resulting in 80.33 and 79.0 g in the first and second seasons, respectively.
Variations in terms of fennel plant height were noted among the different alley cropping treatments, as shown in Figure 1. All of the intercropping treatments registered higher plant heights over sole cropping, with either nitrogen or EF. Among the different intercropping treatments, T4 followed by T6 recorded highest plant heights (135.0 and 137.67 cm) and (124.33 and 126 cm) in the first and second seasons, respectively.
The results provided in Figure 2 exhibit that the number of main branches of fennel was significantly affected by different alley intercropping treatments during the two seasons. The T8 treatment followed by T6 produced the highest numbers of main branches compared to the other treatments. Meanwhile, the lowest values for the numbers of main branches were obtained with T3.

3.2. Effect of Alley Cropping and EF on Fruit Yield and Attributes of Fennel

Significant variations appeared in the number of umbels/plant of fennel in both seasons (Figure 3). These values increased by planting fennel in between rows of Sesbania trees, regardless of the planting distance of the trees compared to sole crop. Treatment T6 followed by T8 recorded the highest yields for umbel numbers. Treatment T8 resulted in higher values for number of umbels/plant, reaching 49.0 and 48.0 in the first and second seasons, respectively. Meanwhile, the lowest values resulted from fennel planning alone, whether with T1 or T2.
The data for fruit yield/plant and fruit yield/hectare of fennel differed significantly with the alley cropping treatments for both seasons (Table 4). These values increased by planting fennel in between rows of Sesbania trees, regardless of the planting distance of the trees as compared to sole crop. Treatment T6 followed by T8 recorded the highest fruit yields. The highest values reached 40.67 and 41.67 g for fruit yield/plant and 3.19 and 3.26 ton for fruit yield/hectare in the first and second seasons, respectively. The lowest values for fruit yield were with fennel as sole crop, whether with T1 or T2.
By comparing alley cropping and EF treatments with sole fennel crop, higher values were recorded for the volatile oil percentage when fennel was alleyed in between Sesbania, irrespective of the planting space (Figure 4). Treatment T6 followed by T8 recorded the highest essential oil percentages. The highest volatile oil percentages (2.46 and 2.47%) were recorded for T6 in the first and second seasons, respectively.

3.3. Effects of Alley Cropping and EF on N, P, and K in Fennel Herb

The data for N, P, and K (%) exhibit a significant correlation with the growth and yield of fennel herb, as shown in Table 5. Alley cropping and EF treatments increased these contents, especially when planted fennel was alleyed in between Sesbania at 4 m spacing with the addition of nitrogen and EF. The amount of nutrients in fennel herb increased because of elevations in the soil’s fertility and nutrient availability due to nitrogen fixation by leguminous Sesbania pruning. The highest values of N (1.66 and 1.73%), P (0.41 and 0.41%), and K (2.17 and 2.24%) were associated mainly with T6 in the first and second seasons, respectively.

3.4. Effect of Alley Cropping and EF on Photosynthetic Pigment of Fennel Leaves

Significant differences were observed in chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids concentrations of fennel leaves during the first and second seasons (Figure 5). High photosynthetic pigment values were noted under fennel crops intercropped with Sesbania trees as compared to monocropped fennel. Treatment T6 followed by T8 produced higher photosynthetic pigments compared to other treatments during both seasons. Sole fennel, either with the addition of N fertilizer or EF, reported the lowest photosynthetic pigments.

3.5. Simple Correlation Coefficients

The simple correlation coefficients between different traits of fennel for eight traits over the two years (above and below diagonals) are shown in Table 6. In the present study, there were positive and highly significant correlations between dry weight/plant with each of the vegetative growth and yield traits, such as the number Of umbels/plant (r = 0.945 ** and 0.949 **), fruit yield/plant (r = 0.980 ** and 0.992 **), fruit yield/hectare (r = 0.980 ** and 0.993 **), oil percentage (0.980 ** and 0.985 **), and also the macronutrients contents for N (%) (r = 0.993 ** and 0.993 **), P (%) (r = 0.984 ** and 0.921 **) and K (%) (r = 0.996 ** and 0.994 **) in 2020/2021 and 2021/2022, respectively. In the same way, each of fruit yield/plant and fruit yield/hectare also showed positive and highly significant associations with other traits in the two years, and oil percentage and macronutrient P content (%) and K content (%) demonstrated positive, highly significant correlations with these and with other traits in the two years. Consequently, these results suggest that methods to improve any fruit yield/plant and fruit yield/hectare trait would automatically improve other traits.

4. Discussion

The application of different agro-ecological practices leads to enhanced consumption of natural resources and decreased losses; utilization of legumes provides nitrogen, while deep-rooted trees and crops provide minerals, water, and soil protection [31]. Alley cropping systems allow for diverse land usage and lower the risks associated with growing a single crop; furthermore, alley cropping allows for returns from the land during severe conditions when monocultures fail. Production of different crops under an alley cropping system is a good option, especially under limited resources; this cropping system has wider potential with different crops [32].

4.1. Effect of Alley Cropping and EF on Growth Parameters of Fennel

Our results proved that sowing fennel in the interspaces of Sesbania (4 m space) with nitrogen and EF addition (T6) resulted in higher growth parameter values, yield and its attributes, and macronutrients (N, P and K) in herb and photosynthetic pigments, compared to the sole treatments. These increases in fennel might be related to the positive effect of Sesbania prunings, the moderate N fertilizer and EF supply, and the appropriate distances between Sesbania rows. In this respect, [33] suggested that the performance of Sesbania–lemongrass with the addition of Sesbania prunings and nitrogen fertilizer leads to a considerable increase in the plant growth and productivity of lemongrass. For a nine-month fallow of Sesbania sesban and/or Crotalaria grahamiana, [34] reported that as little as 23 kg N/ha fixed in other similar systems or as much as 113 kg N/ha was received from atmospheric N2. According to [35], agroforestry systems are a useful addition to conservation agriculture systems because they offer nutrients, soil cover, and shelter belts that prevent soil and wind erosion on hillsides.

4.2. Role of Sesbania Prunings in Enhancing Soil Characteristics

Alley fennel may have increased growth and yield potential as well as enhanced quality features due to the good soil conditions beneath it. The high quality, organic materials of Sesbania prunings decompose rapidly, releasing nitrogen initially in excess of the fennel’s needs [36]. In this respect, [37] stated that applying Leucaena leucocephala–turmeric as alley cropping enhances fertility and availability of nutrients, which increased the growth and yield characteristics of turmeric. Numerous studies have promoted the advantages of using prunings as mulch and organic matter [33,37,38,39].
The fennel plants excelled among the rows of Sesbania trees, especially with their supply of nitrogen fertilizer and endophytic fungi as Chaetomium globosum. The positive effects of endophytic fungi stimulate plants to synthesize hormones that resist different stresses [40] and allow plants to maintain low levels of the Na+/K+ ratio, which in turn permits them to regulate stress genes [41]. Moreover, many studies proved that endophytic fungi act as bio stimulators on the growth and plant biomass for different plants, as [42] noted for Solanum lycopersicum; [43] on Chrysophyllum oliviforme; [44] on Zea mays; [45] on Oryza sativa; [8] on Triticum aestivum; and [46] on Moringa oleifera. Endophytic fungi were also utilized to increase the quantity and quality of sweet basil under stressed conditions [47]. In addition, the beneficial effects of EF on fennel plants may be related to producing allelochemicals for symbiotic relationships that encourage plants to safely endure and procreate under high stress [48].
Our study’s results indicate that biomass from Sesbania as hedgerow species alone may not suffice to sustain fennel production; there is a need to supplement it with N fertilizer at the rate of 100 kg ha−1 and bio stimulant EF at 100 mL plant−1 as drench. The competition for light was minimal because Sesbania hedge was maintained at 1.25 m height during the two growing seasons of fennel. Thus, the positive effects of Sesbania on the fennel crop may be due to the higher gas exchange parameters of fennel.
The beneficial effects of prunings as a mulch and organic matter have been advocated by various researchers [33,39]. Further, studies also proved that alley crops supplemented with prunings had higher N, P, and K contents in their leaves. Using prunings was one of the causes for improving the yield and quality of fennel. These results are in agreement with [49,50,51].
The highest growth and productivity of fennel was recorded under Sesbania planted at 4 and 6 m; these distances are more favorable conditions for production of fennel crop. Our results indicated that 4 and 6 m row spacing is probably the optimum spacing for Sesbania with fennel crop [52]. In the current study, the correlation coefficients were positive and highly significant between herb dry weight/plant with each of the number of umbels/plant, fruit yield/plant, fruit yield/hectare, oil percentage, N content (%), P content (%), and K content (%) in the two studied seasons. These findings are in accordance with [53,54,55,56].

5. Conclusions

From the previous results, it can be concluded that Sesbania–fennel alley cropping with supplementation of N fertilizer and endophytic fungi as Chaetomium globosum are efficient and sustainable agro-ecological strategies for increasing fennel growth, yield, and its attributes. This study proved the importance of sowing legume trees at an appropriate spacing (4 or 6 m) with 1.25 m tree height for improving production of fennel crop. Also, incorporating leaves of Sesbania as green manure in this system resulted in increased fertility and nutrient availability in soil, which in turn induced the growth and productivity characteristics of fennel. We recommend the use of agroforestry as Sesbania–fennel alley cropping, along with incorporating leaves of Sesbania as green manure in this system, to improve production of fennel crop and increase fertility and nutrient availability in soil. It was an effective technique for sustainable agriculture. More studies should be conducted in agroforestry with different plants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.I.B.; methodology, M.I.B.; software, M.F.A.H.; statistical analysis, S.A.H.; investigation, S.A.H., N.M.A. and N.L.; funding acquisition, N.M.A.; data curation, S.A.H., N.M.A. and N.L.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.H.; writing—review and editing, S.A.H.; supervision, A.A.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

There is no financial funding from any governmental or non-governmental entity.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the Scientific Research at Shaqra University for supporting this research. The authors express their gratitude to A.F.A. Ebeid at Al-Marashda Agricultural Research Station.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Willey, R.W. Resource use in intercropping systems. Agric. Water Manag. 1990, 17, 215–231. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Torquebiau, E.; Kwesiga, F. Root development in a Sesbania sesban fallow-maize system in Eastern Zambia. Agrofor. Syst. 1996, 34, 193–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Fridley, J.D. The influence of species diversity on ecosystem productivity: How, where, and why? Oikos 2001, 93, 514–526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kebede, E. Contribution, Utilization, and Improvement of Legumes-driven Biological Nitrogen Fixation in agricultural systems. Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 2021, 5, 767998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Rosecrance, R.C. Alley Cropping of Maize with Nine Leguminous Trees. Master’s Thesis, Horticulture, Graduate Division, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI, USA, 1990. [Google Scholar]
  6. Ghaffari, M.R.; Ghabooli, M.; Khatabi, B.; Hajirezaei, M.R.; Schweizer, P.; Salekdeh, G.H. Metabolic and transcriptional response of central metabolism affected by root endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica under salinity in barley. Plant Mol. Biol. 2016, 90, 699–717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Li, L.; Li, L.; Wang, X.; Zhu, P.; Wu, H.; Qi, S. Plant growth promoting endophyte Piriformospora indica alleviates salinity stress in Medicago truncatula. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2017, 119, 211–223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  8. Zhang, F.; Wang, Y.; Liu, C.; Chen, F.; Ge, H.; Tian, F.; Yang, T.; Ma, K.; Zhang, Y. Trichoderma harzianum mitigates salt stress in cucumber via multiple responses. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2019, 170, 436–445. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Gupta, S.; Schillaci, M.; Walker, R.; Smith, P.; Watt, M.; Roessner, U. Alleviation of salinity stress in plants by endophytic plant-fungal symbiosis: Current knowledge, perspectives and future directions. Plant Soil 2021, 461, 219–244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. De Felício, R.; Pavão, G.B.; De Oliveira, A.L.L.; Erbert, C.; Conti, R.; Pupo, M.T.; Furtado, N.A.; Ferreira, E.G.; Costa-Lotufo, L.V.; Young, M.C.M. Antibacterial, antifungal and cytotoxic activities exhibited by endophytic fungi from the Brazilian marine red alga Bostrychia tenella (Ceramiales). Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2015, 25, 641. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Rampadarath, S.; Puchooa, D.; Jeewon, R.; Bandhoa, K. Diversity, seasonal variation and antibacterial activity of endophytic fungi associated with the genus Jatropha in Mauritius. J. Biotechnol. Biomater. 2018, 8, 2. [Google Scholar]
  12. Nusrat, B.; Gul, J.; Farzana, G.J.; Muhammad, H.; Amjad, I.; Anwar, H.; Hazir, R.; Abdul, T.; Faiza, K. Cochliobolus sp. acts as a biochemical modulator to alleviate salinity stress in okra plants. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 2019, 139, 459. [Google Scholar]
  13. Qadir, M.; Hussain, A.; Hamayun, M.; Shah, M.; Iqbal, A.; Murad, W. Phytohormones producing rhizobacterium alleviates chromium toxicity in Helianthus annuus L. by reducing chromate uptake and strengthening antioxidant system. Chemosphere. 2020, 258, 127386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Odelade, K.A.; Babalola, O.O. Bacteria, fungi and archaea domains in rhizospheric soil and their effects in enhancing agricultural productivity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 3873. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Igiehon, N.O.; Babalola, O.O.; Cheseto, X.; Torto, B. Effects of rhizobia and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on yield, size distribution and fatty acid of soybean seeds grown under drought stress. Microbiol. Res. 2021, 242, 126640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Jin, J.; Zhao, Q.; Zhang, X.M.; Li, W.J. Research progress on bioactive products from endophytes. J. Microbiol. 2018, 38, 103–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Wichtl, M.; Bisset, N.G. Herbai druge and phytopharmaceuticeles. Ed. Med. Pharm Sci. Publ. Stuttg. 1994, 107–108. [Google Scholar]
  18. Fathy, M.S.; Shehata, A.M.; Kaleei, A.E.; Ezzhat, S.M. An Acylated Kaempferol Glycoside from Flowers of Foeniculum vulgare and F. Dulce. Molecules 2002, 7, 245–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Mehta, R.S.; Meena, S.S.; Anwer, M.M.; Lai, G.; Krishna, K. Advance Production Technology of Fennel ICAR-National Research Centre on Seed Spices Tabiji. Ajmer 2009, 305, 206. [Google Scholar]
  20. Valiki, S.R.H.; Ghanbari, S.; Sajedeh Golmohammadzadeh, S.; Tat, O.F. The effect of vermicompost and NPK fertilizer on yield, growth parameters and essential oil of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare). Int. J. Life Sci. 2015, 9, 38–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Yamoah, C.F.; Burleigh, J.R. Alley cropping Sesbania sesban (L) Merill with food crops in the highland region of Rwanda. Agrofor. Syst. 2004, 10, 169–181. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Ghaderimokri, L.; Rezaei-Chiyaneh, E.; Ghiyasi, M.; Gheshlaghi, M.; Battaglia, M.L.; Siddique, K.H.M. Application of humic acid and biofertilizers changes oil and phenolic compounds of fennel and fenugreek in intercropping systems. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12, 5946. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Filip, P.; Weber, R.W.S.; Sterner, O.; Anke, T. Hormonemate, a new cytotoxic and apoptosis-inducing compound from the endophytic fungus Hormonemadematioides. 1. Identification of the producing strain, isolation and biological properties of hormonemate. Z’Naturforsch 2003, 58, 547–552. [Google Scholar]
  24. Smith, N.R.; Dawson, V.T. The Bacteriostatic Action of Rose Bengal in Media Used for the Plate Counts of Soil Fungi. Soil Sci. 1944, 58, 467–471. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Guenther, E. The Essential Oils, 1st ed.; Van Nostrand: New York, NY, USA, 1961. [Google Scholar]
  26. Jackson, M.L. Soil Chemical Analysis; Prentice Hall of India, Private Limited: New Delhi, India, 1967. [Google Scholar]
  27. King, E.J. Micro-Analysis in Medical Biochemistry, 2nd ed.; Churchill Publishing Co.: London, UK, 1951. [Google Scholar]
  28. Rawe, G.J. Food-Analysis by Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy; Varian Techtron: Belrose, Australia; Palo Alto, CA, USA; Steinhausen, Switzerland, 1973; Volume 89. [Google Scholar]
  29. Lichtenthaler, H.K.; Wellburn, A.R. Determinations of total carotenoids and chlorophylls a and b of leaf extracts in different solvents. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 1983, 11, 591–592. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Snedecor, G.W.; Cochran, W.G. Statistical Methods, 6th ed.; Iowa State University Digital Press: Ames, IA, USA, 1972; Volume 953. [Google Scholar]
  31. FAO. Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013; 570p. [Google Scholar]
  32. Choudhury, K.; Jansen, L.J.M. Terminology for Integrated Resources Management and Planning; FAO/UNEP: Rome, Italy, 1999. [Google Scholar]
  33. Ebeid, A.F.A.; Ali, E.F.; Mostafa, M.M.A. Impact of alley cropping system amended with Sesbania and/or nitrogenous fertilizer on growth and yield of Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf. J. Med. Plants Stud. 2015, 3, 07–13. [Google Scholar]
  34. Alley, M.M.; Vanlauwe, B. The Role of Fertilizers in Integrated Plant Nutrient Management, 1st ed.; IFA: Paris, France; TSBF-CIAT: Nairobi, Kenya, 2009; Volume 59. [Google Scholar]
  35. Chandrakar, H.L.; Chandrakar, K.; Ujjaini, M.; Yadav, K.C. The effect of fertilization on growth & yield of rain fed blackgram in custard apple based agri-horti-system with alley cropping pattern on vindhyan soil. Int. J. Sci. Res. Publ. 2014, 4, 2250–3153. [Google Scholar]
  36. Makumba, W.; Akinnifesi, F.K.; Janssen, B.; Oenema, O. Optimization of nitrogen released and immobilization from soil-applied prunings of Sesbania sesban and maize stover. Sci. Res. Essays 2007, 2, 400–407. [Google Scholar]
  37. Soliman, Y.M.; Soliman, W.S.; Abbas, A.M. Alley cropping and organic compost: An efficient and sustainable agro-ecological strategy for improving turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) growth and attributes. Agriculture 2023, 13, 2–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Brewbaker, J.L. The tropical for maize cultivation. In Breeding Stratgies for Maize Production Improvement in Tropics, Brandoline, A., Salamini, F., Eds.; FAO: Rome, Italy, 1985; pp. 47–77. [Google Scholar]
  39. Rosecrance, R.C.; Kuo, W. Maize yields from an alley cropping experiment with nine tree species in Hawaii. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Res. Rep. 1989, 7, 36–37. [Google Scholar]
  40. Manasa, K.M.; Vasanthakumari, M.M.; Nataraja, K.N.; Uma Shaanker, R. Endophytic fungi of salt adapted Ipomea pes-caprae L. R. Br: Their possible role in inducing salinity tolerance in paddy (Oryza sativa L.). Curr. Sci. 2020, 118, 1448–1458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Abdelaziz, M.E.; Kim, D.; Ali, S.; Fedoroff, N.V.; Al-Babili, S. The endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica enhances Arabidopsis thaliana growth and modulates Na+/K+ homeostasis under salt stress conditions. Plant Sci. 2017, 263, 107–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Azad, K.; Kaminskyj, S. A fungal endophyte strategy for mitigating the effect of salt and drought stress on plant growth. Symbiosis 2016, 68, 73–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Ebeid, A.F.A.; Shebany, Y.M. Influence of endophytic fungi and growing media on the growth and some chemical constitutes in Chrysophyllum oliviforme seedlings. Res. J. Pharm. Biol. Chem. Sci. 2017, 8, 532–544. [Google Scholar]
  44. Rho, H.; Hsieh, M.; Kandel, S.L.; Cantillo, J.; Doty, S.L.; Kim, S.H. Do endophytes promote growth of host plants under stress? A meta-analysis on plant stress mitigation by endophytes. Microb. Ecol. 2018, 75, 407–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Saddique, M.A.B.; Ali, Z.; Khan, A.S.; Rana, I.A.; Shamsi, I.H. Inoculation with the endophyte Piriformospora indica significantly affects mechanisms involved in osmotic stress in rice. Rice 2018, 11, 34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Soliman, Y.M.; Mahmoud, A.M.M.; Hussein, M.F.A.; Helmy, T.A.; Ayyat, A.M. Impact of silicon and endophytic fungi application for plant survival, biomass and chemical compositions of Moringa oleifera Lam. Under Salinity Stress Conditions. Assiut J. Agric. Sci. 2022, 53, 65–77. [Google Scholar]
  47. Sabra, M.; Franken, P.; Camehl, I. Beneficial root endophytic fungi change growth and oil composition of sweet basil in heavy metal contaminated soil. Appl. Microbiol. 2017, 3, 2. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Macías-Rubalcava, M.L.; Hernández-Bautista, B.E.; Jiménez-Estrada, M.; González, M.C.; Glenn, A.E.; Hanlin, R.T. Naphthoquinone spiroketal with allelochemical activity from the newly discovered endophytic fungus Edenia gomezpompae. Phytochem. 2008, 69, 1185–1196. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Haggar, J.P.; Warren, G.P.; Beer, J.W.; Kass, D. Phosphorus availability under alley cropping and mulched and unmulched sole cropping systems in Costa Rica. Plant Soil 1991, 137, 275–283. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Alloli, T.B. Production Potential of Vegetable Crops under Eucalyptus and Leucaena Based Agroforestry Systems. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, India, 1998. [Google Scholar]
  51. Krishna, B.E.; Allolli, T.B. Influence of Cropping System and Source of Nutrients in leucaena Based Alley Cropping System on Yield and Quality of Tomato. J. Agric. Sci. 2005, 18, 464–468. [Google Scholar]
  52. Ebeid, A.F.A.; Abbas, M.M.; Ali, E.F. Potential of Leucaena hedges for food crop production in southern Egypt. J. Plant Prod. Mansoura Univ. 2011, 2, 265–277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Amin, M.R.; Ikbal, T.M.T.; Miah, M.M.U.; Hakim, M.A.; Amanullah, A.S.M. Performance of ginger under agroforestry system. Bangladesh Res. Publ. J. 2012, 4, 208–217. [Google Scholar]
  54. Chauhan, S.K.; Singh, A.; Sikka, S.S.; Tiwana, U.S.; Sharma, R.; Saralch, H.S. Yield and quality assessment of annual and perennial fodder intercrops in Leucaena alley farming system. Range Manag. Agrofor. 2014, 35, 230–235. [Google Scholar]
  55. Purnomo, D.; Budiastuti, M.S.; Sakya, A.T.; Cholid, M.I. The potential of turmeric (Curcuma xanthorrhiza) in agroforestry system based on silk tree (Albizia chinensis). IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. 2018, 142, 012034. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Prasad, K.; Khare, A.; Rawat, P. Quality and yield performance of turmeric (Curcuma longa Linn.) in response to glycoprotein producing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal bio stimulant and traditional fertilizers utilization. Cur. Investing. Agric. Cur. Res. 2021, 9, 1292–1298. [Google Scholar]
Sustainability 16 05167 g001
Figure 1. Plant heights (cm) for fennel as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Figure 1. Plant heights (cm) for fennel as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Sustainability 16 05167 g001
Sustainability 16 05167 g002
Figure 2. Numbers of main branches on fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Figure 2. Numbers of main branches on fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Sustainability 16 05167 g002
Sustainability 16 05167 g003
Figure 3. Numbers of umbels/plant of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Figure 3. Numbers of umbels/plant of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Sustainability 16 05167 g003
Sustainability 16 05167 g004
Figure 4. Essential oil percentages in fruits of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Figure 4. Essential oil percentages in fruits of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Sustainability 16 05167 g004
Sustainability 16 05167 g005aSustainability 16 05167 g005b
Figure 5. Chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids (mg·g−1) in leaves of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Figure 5. Chlorophyll a and b and carotenoids (mg·g−1) in leaves of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N (bars represent standard deviations of the means). Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Sustainability 16 05167 g005aSustainability 16 05167 g005b
Table 1. The physical and chemical characteristics of the experimental soil site.
Table 1. The physical and chemical characteristics of the experimental soil site.
Texture ClassParticle Size DistributionCaCO3 %EC dSm−1pH (1:5 H2O)
Sand %Silt %Clay %
Sandy81.112.26.712.503.048.00
Cation (mg·L−1)Anion (mg·L−1)
Na+K+Ca++Mg++CO3−2HCO3−Cl−SO4−2
701.9632.3724074.1150.051.851085.01861.6
Data are expressed as means and SD (n = 3).
Table 2. The chemical analysis of the irrigation water for the experimental site.
Table 2. The chemical analysis of the irrigation water for the experimental site.
TDS
mg/L		pHEC
(dSm−1)		Soluble Cations (mg·L−1)Soluble Anions (mg·L−1)
Ca++Mg++Na+K+CO3−2HCO3−SO4−2Cl−
225.57.3325.328.58.831.66.224.7110.541.631.2
Table 3. Numbers of days from sowing until harvesting, stem diameters (cm), and herb dry weight/plant (g) (±SD) for fennel plants as affected by alley cropping and EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Table 3. Numbers of days from sowing until harvesting, stem diameters (cm), and herb dry weight/plant (g) (±SD) for fennel plants as affected by alley cropping and EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
TreatmentsNumber of Days Until HarvestingStem Diameter (cm)Herb Dry Weight/Plant (g)
1st Season2nd Season1st Season2nd Season1st Season2nd Season
T1186 d ± 2.62190 e ± 2.051.80 bc ± 0.081.63 a ± 0.1280.33 a ± 2.0579.00 a ± 1.63
T2174 c ± 2.87175 d ± 4.111.60 b ± 0.081.60 a ± 0.0882.00 a ± 2.1683.00 ab ± 0.82
T3178 c ± 2.05175 d ± 2.051.40 a ± 0.081.50 a ± 0.0886.67 b ± 0.9487.67 bc ± 2.05
T4167 b ± 2.16167 bc ± 3.681.60 b ± 0.081.70 ab ± 0.0891.67 c ± 2.8794.00 d ± 2.94
T5168 b ± 2.05169 cd ± 2.621.80 bc ± 0.081.70 ab ± 0.0887.33 bc ± 2.0590.00 cd ± 2.16
T6144 a ± 3.30149 a ± 3.742.37 d ± 0.122.23 c ± 0.12107.33 e ± 2.05108.67 f ± 3.68
T7164 b ± 2.94167 bc ± 1.702.00 c ± 0.081.90 b ± 0.0888.33 bc ± 1.2592.00 cd ± 1.63
T8162 b ± 2.87162 b ± 2.622.00 c ± 0.081.90 b ± 0.0896.33 d ± 2.87101.0 e ± 2.94
Table 4. Fruit yield/plant (g) and fruit yield/hectare (ton) (±SD) of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Table 4. Fruit yield/plant (g) and fruit yield/hectare (ton) (±SD) of fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
TreatmentsFruit Yield/Plant (g)Fruit Yield/Hectare (ton)
1st Season2nd Season1st Season2nd Season
T124.67 a ± 1.2527.00 a ± 0.821.95 a ± 0.042.12 a ± 0.02
T229.00 b ± 0.8228.67 a ± 1.252.28 b ± 0.032.26 a ± 0.04
T333.00 c ± 0.8232.67 b ± 1.702.59 c ± 0.022.57 b ± 0.06
T435.67 de ± 1.2537.00 c ± 0.822.80 de ± 0.042.83 c ± 0.05
T535.00 cd ± 0.8234.67 bc ± 1.252.76 cd ± 0.032.7 bc ± 0.04
T640.67 f ± 1.2541.67 d ± 0.943.18 f ± 0.043.26 d ± 0.03
T736.67 de ± 1.7036.00 c ± 0.822.87 de ± 0.062.76 bc ± 0.03
T838.00 e ± 0.8236.67 c ± 1.252.9 e ± 0.032.87 c ± 0.04
Table 5. N, P, and K contents (% ±S.D.) in fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
Table 5. N, P, and K contents (% ±S.D.) in fennel plants as affected by alley cropping, EF, and N. Fennel sole crop + N fertilizer only (T1), fennel sole crop + EF only (T2), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing (T3), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 2 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T4), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing (T5), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 4 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T6), fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing (T7), and fennel alleyed with Sesbania at 6 m spacing + N fertilizer + EF (T8). Different letters indicate significant differences between treatments at p < 0.05 according to Duncan’s test.
TreatmentsNPK
1st Season2nd Season1st Season2nd Season1st Season2nd Season
T11.36 b ± 0.031.37 b ± 0.010.26 a ± 0.030.24 ab ± 0.021.60 a ± 0.041.58 a ± 0.04
T21.22 a ± 0.011.23 a ± 0.020.28 ab ± 0.020.26 ab ± 0.011.69 b ± 0.031.69 bc ± 0.03
T31.37 b ± 0.011.33 b ± 0.020.30 abc ± 0.020.20 a ± 0.131.73 b ± 0.021.74 c ± 0.01
T41.45 c ± 0.021.47 d ± 0.020.33 cd ± 0.020.32 bc ± 0.011.88 c ± 0.021.89 d ± 0.04
T51.42 c ± 0.031.42 c ± 0.010.30 abc ± 0.020.31 bc ± 0.021.58 a ± 0.021.65 b ± 0.03
T61.66 f ± 0.021.73 g ± 0.020.41 e ± 0.020.41 c ± 0.012.17 d ± 0.052.24 e ± 0.03
T71.52 d ± 0.021.53 e ± 0.020.31 bc ± 0.010.34 bc ± 0.011.70 b ± 0.031.74 c ± 0.03
T81.60 e ± 0.021.61 f ± 0.040.36 d ± 0.020.39 c ± 0.011.93 c ± 0.031.93 d ± 0.03
Table 6. Correlation coefficients between eight traits of fennel over two years (above first and below second). ** p < 0.05.
Table 6. Correlation coefficients between eight traits of fennel over two years (above first and below second). ** p < 0.05.
TraitsHerb Dry wt/PlantNo. of Umbels/PlantFruit Yield/
Plant		Fruit Yield/HectareOil %N
(%)		P
(%)		K
(%)
Dry weight/plant……0.945 **0.980 **0.980 **0.980 **0.993 **0.984 **0.996 **
No. of umbels/plant0.949 **……0.959 **0.959 **0.950 **0.949 **0.959 **0.946 **
Fruit yield/plant0.992 **0.954 **……1.00 **0.992 **0.982 **0.976 **0.976 **
Fruit yield/hectare0.993 **0.954 **0.999 **……0.992 **0.982 **0.976 **0.976 **
Oil %0.985 **0.937 **0.990 **0.991 **……0.976 **0.976 **0.972 **
N (%)0.993 **0.9540.988 **0.988 **0.975 **……0.979 **0.987 **
P (%)0.921 **0.930 **0.926 **0.926 **0.918 **0.919 **……0.981 **
K (%)0.994 **0.950 **0.986 **0.987 **0.975 **0.984 **0.913 **……
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Hammad, S.A.; Bahnasy, M.I.; Alzamel, N.M.; Hussein, M.F.A.; Mahmoud, A.A.A.; Loutfy, N. Agro-Ecological Practice for Sustaining Higher Productivity of Fennel Plant Using Alley Cropping System and Endophytic Fungi. Sustainability 2024, 16, 5167. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16125167

AMA Style

Hammad SA, Bahnasy MI, Alzamel NM, Hussein MFA, Mahmoud AAA, Loutfy N. Agro-Ecological Practice for Sustaining Higher Productivity of Fennel Plant Using Alley Cropping System and Endophytic Fungi. Sustainability. 2024; 16(12):5167. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16125167

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hammad, Sabah A., Magdi I. Bahnasy, Nurah M. Alzamel, Mona F. A. Hussein, Ahmed A. A. Mahmoud, and Naglaa Loutfy. 2024. "Agro-Ecological Practice for Sustaining Higher Productivity of Fennel Plant Using Alley Cropping System and Endophytic Fungi" Sustainability 16, no. 12: 5167. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16125167

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop