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Article

Impact of Domestic Heating on Air Pollution—Extreme Pollution Events in Serbia

by
Gorica Stanojević
1,
Slavica Malinović-Milićević
1,2,*,
Eldin Brđanin
3,
Miško Milanović
3,
Milan M. Radovanović
1 and
Teodora Popović
1
1
Geographical Institute “Jovan Cvijić”, Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Djure Jakšića 9, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
2
Institute of Environmental Engineering, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), 6 Miklukho-Maklaya Street, 117198 Moscow, Russia
3
Faculty of Geography, University of Belgrade, Studentski Trg 3/III, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(18), 7920; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187920
Submission received: 5 July 2024 / Revised: 7 September 2024 / Accepted: 9 September 2024 / Published: 11 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Section Pollution Prevention, Mitigation and Sustainability)
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Abstract

:
Exposure to ambient particulate matter (PM) is one of the leading health risks globally. Several European regions experience high PM concentrations due to the burning of fossil fuels for domestic heating. Accordingly, Serbia ranks among the countries with the highest levels of air pollution. The annual mean concentrations are the most common indicator in exposure studies. However, this study uses station data in Serbia to indicate the concentrations to which the population is exposed during the heating season (October–April) based on daily PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations from 2011 to 2022. In addition, events with concentrations above WHO-recommended daily upper limits (45 μg/m3 for PM10 and 15 μg/m3 for PM2.5) are classified by duration, intensity, and the cumulative sum of excess concentrations. The highest daily mean PM10 concentration in the heating season is 87.1 μg/m3, and for PM2.5, the highest concentration is 65.6 μg/m3 (up to three to four times more than in the rest of the year in both cases). During the most extreme events, mean daily PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations were in the ranges of 150–200 μg/m3 and 100–150 μg/m3, respectively. The cumulative sum of excess concentration in the most extreme events reached up to ~7600 μg/m3 for PM10 and ~5000 μg/m3 for PM2.5. To better understand the problem, the share of occupied dwellings with heating installations and prevailing types of fuels were explored on the municipal level. In general, in most municipalities in Serbia, the share of dwellings with heating installations is up to 60%. Among those, dwellings with district heating dominate, while only a small number of them have a significant share of central heating. When it comes to fuel types, wood is primarily used in dwellings with district heating or without heating installations. These findings imply directions for the development of air quality planning and management policies.

1. Introduction

Emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels are the primary anthropogenic source of particulate matter (PM) in the atmosphere. One of the biggest threats to human health at the global level is exposure to PM, i.e., PM10 (PM with a diameter of 10 µm or less) and PM2.5 (PM with a diameter of 2.5 µm or less). Exposure to PM2.5 is a leading global cause of death, with an estimated 4.14 million attributable deaths worldwide in 2019 [1]. With the development of human society, anthropogenic emissions have increased, and despite efforts to reduce them, certain world regions are experiencing high population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations [2]. These regional differences depend on which sector dominates emissions: residential fuel use, energy generation, transportation, industry, etc. One of the major health concerns in Europe regarding air quality is exposure to PM2.5, especially for residents in urban areas [3]. The southeastern European region experiences high concentrations of air pollution due to the combustion of solid fuels (wood and coal) for household heating, as well as a substantial number of older vehicle fleets, industrial activities, and energy production. Emissions from domestic heating are seasonal and pose the greatest threat to the population during the cold part of the year. Most estimates of the impact of air pollution are based on average long-term exposure. However, short-term exposure can have dire health consequences [4].
McDuffie et al. [5] estimated that the residential sector contributes approximately 19% to the global PM2.5 disease burden, followed by industry, at around 12%, and energy production at about 10%. The same authors estimated that mortality in 2017 could have been lower by 1.05 million if fossil fuel combustion, mainly coal, had been eliminated. Furthermore, reducing the use of solid biofuel, primarily for residential heating and cooking, can significantly reduce mortality. Short-term exposure to PM2.5 can also lead to adverse health effects. It has been estimated that approximately 1 million deaths worldwide could be attributed to short-term PM2.5 exposure from 2000 to 2019, and urban residents were particularly at risk [4]. A study of more than 800 European cities revealed that the residential sector has the largest contribution to mortality related to PM2.5. This effect becomes more pronounced as urban areas expand, with the highest rates observed in the largest cities [6]. In 2015, exposure to PM2.5 led to approximately 450,000 premature deaths in Europe. Emissions from the residential sector were the primary source of health risks in Eastern European countries [7]. Furthermore, residential emissions were linked to higher rates of premature deaths during winter due to increased emission levels and heightened sensitivity to carbonaceous aerosols. Paisi et al. [8] showed that PM2.5 emissions from residential fuel combustion caused 72,000 excess deaths per year in Europe, and exposure to carbonaceous aerosols contributed the most to this. Denier van der Gon et al. [9] developed an anthropogenic carbonaceous aerosol emission inventory for Europe and discovered that approximately half of the total PM2.5 emissions in Europe are carbonaceous aerosol, with residential wood combustion being the largest source of organic aerosols in Europe. In a study by Daellenbach et al. [10], it was noted that the negative impact of particulate matter (PM) on health is connected to its oxidative potential. This potential is mainly associated with human-made sources, particularly fine secondary organic aerosols produced from residential biomass burning. Wood smoke pollution analysis, based on the example of one residential site in southern Germany, showed that the larger part of ambient PM10 (57%) is related to hardwood combustion used for heating in winter [11].
The type of heating system and the equipment used significantly affects the emission of pollutants. Individual heating systems emit significantly higher direct NO2 and CO concentrations in residential areas compared to remote heating systems, and pose a greater health risk [12]. Even in small rural settlements, traditional individual heating may contribute significantly to local air pollution (with a contribution to the increase in PM concentrations by more than 30%) and represent an important environmental problem [13]. A study conducted in Slovakian rural settlements revealed significant differences in PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations between the heating (on average 53.9 µg/m3 for PM10 and 52.8 µg/m3 for PM2.5) and non-heating seasons (23.0 µg/m3 for PM10 and 19.3 µg/m3 for PM2.5). This indicates a common air quality issue in Slovak villages due to the impact of local heating [14]. A study conducted in a village in Poland showed that the type of individual heating system significantly affects local air quality. The primary issue leading to high PM2.5 concentrations is related to old devices being used for heating, resulting in up to three times higher concentrations in the cold season (45.9 µg/m3) compared to the warm season [15]. Pollutant emissions are directly determined by the type of fuel used and equipment properties (age and type). This is particularly problematic in poor countries, where low-quality heating devices dominate and waste is often burned in them [16].
Serbia is among the countries in Europe with the highest measured PM concentrations and among those with the highest population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations [3,17,18]. The largest contribution to PM10 and PM2.5 emissions in Serbia comes from heating power with less than 50 MW and individual heating, accounting for 64% and 80% in 2022, respectively [19]. On average, 13,522 deaths and 140,114 years of life lost per year are attributed to PM2.5 exposure in Serbia [20]. The observed morbidity significantly exceeds the European average, particularly for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, diabetes, stroke, and asthma in the population under 15 years of age [21].
This study aims to provide insight into the PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations during the heating season, together with an assessment of extreme pollution events. The air quality assessments are mostly based on average annual concentrations, which are also utilized in national reports on air quality in Serbia [19]. To understand the level of air pollution during the heating season, we analyzed and presented the time series of daily PM concentrations for both the heating and non-heating seasons. The statistical distribution, mean, and extreme values at the monitoring stations in Serbia were analyzed for the period 2011–2022. There is a lack of such studies for the territory of Serbia. Additionally, this study aims to conduct a comprehensive analysis of extreme events, categorized by intensity and duration. To understand the impact of emissions from the heating sector, an analysis of heating installations and the type of fuel used for heating in Serbia was carried out. Using the 2022 census data, we analyzed the heating equipment in occupied dwellings and the types of heating fuels used at the municipal level. The findings should offer evidence and identify the primary challenges for policymakers in this field.

2. Materials and Methods

Several different aspects were studied to evaluate the impact of residential heating on air quality. First, the PM concentrations, including average and extreme conditions, to which the population is exposed during the heating season were evaluated. In the second part of the research, the observed concentrations were analyzed in light of features of domestic heating sectors as the main contributor to PM emissions, i.e., the structure of the heating installations and fuels used in dwellings in Serbia. This involved several steps:
  • To study PM concentration, the daily verified station data from the Environmental Protection Agency’s monitoring network were used, from 2011 to 2022 for PM10 and from 2016 to 2022 for PM2.5 [22]. Due to a limited number of available observations and frequent interruptions in time series, particularly concerning PM2.5, we utilized a time series comprising 75% of the available yearly data for a minimum of three years during the study periods. The analysis included a total of 25 stations for PM10 and 16 for PM2.5. The geographical distribution of the stations is shown in Figure 1, while the list of stations with specifications of types, coverage areas, and data availability is presented in Table 1. The statistical properties of the data series (data distribution, means, and extreme values) were calculated for heating and non-heating seasons. In Serbia, public heating plant systems define the heating season from 15 October to 15 April, but depending on weather conditions, i.e., a mean daily temperature under 12 °C, it can start earlier or be extended. For the purpose of this study, data series were compared for the heating (from 1 October to 30 April) and non-heating seasons (from 1 May to 30 September).
  • Exposure studies often use the average condition to estimate population exposure to air pollution. However, it is widely recognized that episodes of extreme pollution can have catastrophic consequences for the population’s health. Therefore, pollution events and their frequency and intensity were studied. An event (E) was defined as an episode when the PM concentration was above the WHO-recommended guideline quality levels (WHO GQL) for at least three consecutive days. For PM10, the upper limit of daily concentration was 45 μg/m3, and for PM2.5, it was 15 μg/m3 [23]. For every E, several statistical features were calculated: event duration (Eduartion, in days), average concentration during the event (Emean, in μg/m3), and the cumulative sum of concentration above the upper limit during the event (Ecumsum, in μg/m3). This allows for a comparison of pollution severity between stations in Serbia and the identification of the most extreme events (max Eduration, max Emean, and max Ecumsum).
  • The PM levels in Serbia are directly related to emissions from the heating sector. To better understand this impact, the census data from 2022 were used for the assessment of heating installations in occupied dwellings [24] and fuels used [25]. The term ‘occupied dwelling’ means that it is used for permanent residence. The data were available at the municipal level. The following parameters were calculated and analyzed:
    -
    The share of occupied dwellings with heating installations in the total number of occupied dwellings (Dhi, %).
    -
    The share of those with central heating installations among the occupied dwellings (Dhicentral, %). Central heating is a system in which heat is delivered from a centralized heat source, such as a public or local heat power plant.
    -
    Among the occupied dwellings with heating installations, the share of those with district heating (Dhidistric, %). District heating refers to a type of heating system where heat is provided from a central boiler room in the building or from a boiler room within the dwelling.
    -
    Among the occupied dwellings with heating installations, the share of those with gas heating (Dgasi, %). Gas heating means that the dwelling is connected to the gas network for heating.
    -
    The share of occupied dwellings without a central heating system according to fuels used: coal (Dwccoal, %), wood (Dwcwood, %), fuel oil (Dwcoil, %), gas fuel (Dwcgas, %), and electric energy (Dwcelectricity, %).
    -
    The share of occupied dwellings without heating installations according to fuel used: coal (Dwccoal, %), wood (Dwcwood, %), fuel oil (Dwcoil, %), gas fuel (Dwcgas, %), and electric energy (Dwcelectricity, %).
The specified parameters were analyzed in terms of variations in values and spatial discrepancies.

3. Results

Several indicators were used to assess exposure to PM concentrations. Figure 2 and Figure 3 represent the ranges and distributional features of the observed daily PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations for analyzed stations. The interquartile range showed a broader spread and higher values at most stations during the heating season compared to the non-heating season. In addition, extremely high values were represented in the heating season, often with values from 100 μg/m3 to 200 μg/m3 and even reaching ~800 μg/m3 (station VA) for PM10. In the case of PM2.5, the most extreme daily concentrations reached up to 250 μg/m3 (stations VA, NP, and KOSJ). Station KM_VIS is located in a rural area where the influence of the heating season on the measured concentrations is not noticeable. In addition, two industrial-type stations, BO_GP and PP, did not show significant differences between heating and non-heating seasons for PM10. In the case of PM2.5, significant differences between the two seasons were found at all stations. This indicates a serious problem of air pollution during the heating season in Serbia.
Figure 4 and Figure 5 depict the mean PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations, representing the average conditions of population exposure in the heating (non-heating) season. The highest values are found for stations VA (87.1 μg/m3) and ZA (85.5 μg/m3) for PM10 and for NP (65.6 μg/m3) and VA (56.2 μg/m3) for PM2.5. Compared to the WHO GQLs, the daily average PM10 concentrations exceeded 45 µg/m3 at most stations (14 out of 25). Meanwhile, the mean PM2.5 concentrations during the heating season exceeded 15 µg/m3 at all stations and even at several stations during the non-heating season. The biggest difference in PM10 and PM2.5 values between the two seasons was up to about 70% (stations VA, ZA, and NP).
Exposure to high PM concentrations can significantly impact the population, even during occasional events of shorter duration. The Es were isolated based on duration and intensity (mean daily PM concentrations and cumulative sum of concentrations exceeding upper limits during events). The max Eduration, max Emean, and max Ecumsum were calculated and ranged between stations (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Regarding the max Eduration, the first ranging station was VA, with an event lasting 90 days in continuity (from 1 January to 30 March 2012). The event, which took place from 29 November 2013 to 18 January 2014, lasted 51 days and was ranked second. This was followed by events lasting 44 and 42 days at the KOSJ and NP stations, respectively. For three stations, the longest events lasted between 30 and 40 days; for nine stations, they were between 20 and 30 days; and for eight stations, they were between 10 and 20 days. The most favorable situation was for station KM_VIS, where the longest event was 5 days (Figure 6a). The situation was much less favorable when it came to the most extreme PM2.5 events. At approximately one-third of the total stations analyzed, episodes lasting 100 days or more were observed. The longest E with a duration of 182 days was recorded for station VA (from 9 October 2021 to 4 April 2022), and 180 days was recorded for station NP (from 12 October 2021 to 9 April 2022), effectively covering almost the entire heating season. Regarding the others, for six stations, the max Eduration was between 50 and 100 days; for four stations, it was between 30 and 50 days, and the shortest max Eduration was 18 days (Figure 7a). The max Emean analysis shows that for certain events, the average daily PM10 levels could exceed 150 μg/m3, which is three times higher than the WHO GQL (Figure 6b). Additionally, for PM2.5, the levels could exceed 100 μg/m3, which is six to seven times higher than the WHO GQL (15 μg/m3, Figure 7b). During these events, the max Ecumsum reached up to ~7600 μg/m3 (Figure 6c), and for PM2.5 ~5000 μg/m3 (Figure 7c), which shows how extreme these events are, i.e., the levels of pollution in the places where these stations are positioned. Also, these events are evidently in the heating season, indicating the population’s exposure to extreme air pollution by PM concentration.
To figure out the impact of the heating sector on emissions and levels of PM, the features of heating installation and fuels used in occupied dwellings were analyzed. The municipalities with the smallest number of occupied dwellings are in the east, northeast, southeast, and southwest of Serbia (less than 5000 and between 5000 and 10,000). The municipalities with the largest number of occupied dwellings (more than 50,000) are the municipalities with the largest populations in Serbia (Figure 8). In general, the spatial distribution of the number of occupied dwellings reflects the spatial pattern of population distribution in Serbia. In seven municipalities, the percentage of occupied dwellings with heating installations (Dhi) is less than 20%, and most of them are in southeastern Serbia. In 53 municipalities, Dhi is in the range of 20–40%. For 77 municipalities, Dhi falls between 40% and 60%. In 27 municipalities, Dhi ranges from 60% to 80%, and only four municipalities have Dhi greater than 80% (Figure 9a). In general, this distribution follows the distribution of the number of occupied dwellings; the highest Dhi is for municipalities with the largest urban areas in Serbia. In more than half of the municipalities in Serbia, Dhicentral has values up to 5%, while only 6% of municipalities have Dhicentral greater than 75% (Figure 9b). Among the occupied dwellings with heating installations, most have district heating (Dhidistrict); in 147 municipalities, the Dhidistrict exceeds 60% (Figure 9c). District heating is the most common, while central heating dominates in several municipalities with large urban settlements. Those with gas installations (Dgasi) have a small share in most of Serbia, except in the northeast, where in several municipalities, Dgasi ranges between 50% and 75%, and for two municipalities is more than 75% (Figure 9d). The results indicate that the public heating system is insufficiently developed in Serbia and that most apartments use their own heating installations.
Looking at the fuels used in occupied dwellings that are not in the central heating system (Dwc), wood dominates in the largest number of municipalities. The lowest Dwcwood was observed in the north of Serbia, while in other parts, Dwcwood ranged from 60 to 80% (Figure 10a). Coal is used much less, with the highest Dwccoal values (30–40%) in several municipalities (Figure 10b), mostly located close to the largest coal mining basins in Serbia. The use of gas fuel is associated with the presence of gas installations, mostly found in the municipalities in the northern part of Serbia (Figure 10d). In the rest of the country, gas installations are very scarce or absent. The use of electricity for heating purposes is the most prevalent in several municipalities—Dwcelectricity has the highest values (>75%) in municipalities that belong to the City of Belgrade, the capital of Serbia (Figure 10c). Because only a small percentage of Dwoil was found (reaching values of about 1–2% in some municipalities), this fuel is no longer considered in analysis.
The values obtained in the analysis of fuels used in occupied dwellings without heating installations (Dwhi, Figure 11a–c) follow the distribution of Dwc. In these dwellings, different heating devices (fireplaces, stoves, etc.) are used for heating purposes, and the fuel used most is wood, followed by coal, electric energy, and gas. As in the case of Dwc, spatial distribution is similar, reflecting the regional disparities—the proximity of coal basins, the existence of gas pipelines, and the use of electricity for heating in the largest urban areas.

4. Discussion

Air pollution is one of the most significant challenges facing human society today. Burning solid fuels in the residential sector, especially for heating purposes, is one of the primary sources of PM. The territory of Serbia belongs to one of the regions of Europe with the highest measured concentrations of PM. Epidemiological statistics also show that the Serbian population is among the leaders in terms of mortality and morbidity attributed to PM2.5 exposure. The biggest contribution to PM10 and PM2.5 emissions comes from domestic heating. This study provides evidence about air quality levels during the heating season, as well as giving an insight into the extreme episodes of pollution to which the population is exposed. There is a high frequency of days on which concentrations have been above the recommended WHO GQL during the heating season. For more than half of the analyzed stations, the average daily values are above the observed upper thresholds for PM10, and at almost all stations for PM2.5. In the case of PM2.5, for several stations this is also the case in the non-heating season. The highest PM10 daily mean for the heating season reached up to 87.1 μg/m3 at station VA, while for PM2.5 it was 65.6 μg/m3 at station NP, and these values are several times higher compared to the non-heating season. However, the analysis of extreme events, according to their duration and intensity, shows severe pollution at most analyzed stations. For the most extreme conditions at several monitoring stations, these events can last more than a month, with average daily concentrations between 150 and 200 μg/m3 for PM10 and between 100 and 150 μg/m3 for PM2.5. The cumulative sum of concentrations above the upper limits in the most extreme episodes reached up to ~7600 mg/m3 and ~5000 μg/m3 for PM10 and PM2.5, respectively.
Regarding the presented PM concentrations at studied stations in Serbia, the situation is very concerning, indicating adverse effects on public health and the environment. In general, most Balkan countries had among the highest population-weighted PM2.5 concentrations in Europe [17]. The main source of particulate matter (PM) emissions in this area was from the combustion of fossil fuels for domestic heating, followed by emissions from the energy production and transportation sectors [3]. This issue in the Western Balkans (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Albania) arises from inefficient low-grade coal-fueled power plants and the residential burning of biomass, significantly deteriorating air quality [26,27,28]. Biomass is primarily used as a source of heating energy, especially in rural areas. However, the use of old equipment and the lack of wood drying before use result in significant energy losses (40–50%) and an increase in economic costs [29]. Therefore, this study aims to understand the observed concentrations in relation to the heating equipment in occupied dwellings and the types of heating fuels used in Serbia.
Only municipalities with larger urban settlements (the highest number of occupied dwellings) have a significant share of dwellings with heating installations (more than 60%, and only some municipalities with >80%). However, for most municipalities, the share of settlements with heating installations (central and district heating) is up to 60%. Among the dwellings with heating installations, the largest share is district heating, and only a small number of municipalities with the largest population are dominated by central heating. In all other cases, dwellings without heating installations use devices such as fireplaces and stoves. An analysis of the use of different types of fuel in dwellings without central heating indicates that the use of wood is dominant in the largest number of municipalities. The use of coal is most common in municipalities that are geographically close to mining basins. Gas is mostly used in the northern part of the country, which is conditioned by the existence of a gas network and infrastructure. Electric heating is most prevalent in dwellings without installations in the largest urban areas. Bearing in mind this structure of occupied dwellings in terms of heating installations and the type of fuel used, in Serbia, those with district installations or without installations dominate, while wood is the most represented energy source. Heat power plants in central heating systems use oil and coal to produce thermal energy for heating purposes. This situation has a particularly detrimental impact on the emissions of PM particles, as evidenced by the high PM concentrations during the heating season and the extreme levels reached.
A central heating system with a power plant as the emission point is often considered a straightforward system for emission control. On the other hand, using coal or oil fuel in heating plants, predominantly of poor quality [30], causes significant pollutant emissions. Individual heating can worsen indoor air quality and contribute to significant pollution. Research has shown significantly higher indoor air pollution in homes with individual coal heating or open fireplaces compared to those with central heating [31]. Also, in poorer countries, there is often no control over what is burned, so varied waste is also burned, which complicates the inventory of emissions [16]. Most often, natural gas is preferred due to its smaller harmful effects on the environment and health [32]. However, the use of renewable energy sources has the greatest impact on reducing emissions and improving air quality [33]. However, the current structure of heating installations and fuels used in Serbia does not favor the improvement of air quality.
Based on the results obtained, PM concentrations observed in heating seasons, and the structure of the domestic heating sector in Serbia, policymakers face significant challenges in protecting public health and the environment. In 2019, the global health cost of mortality and morbidity caused by PM2.5 exposure was estimated at USD 8.1 trillion (6.1% of GDP), with the highest share in low- and middle-income countries [34]. It is estimated that these costs are the highest not only in countries with high levels of pollution but also in countries with a high incidence of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. This is because health costs due to pollution caused by the combustion of fossil fuels are higher in some countries in Southeast Europe (including Serbia) compared with others that have higher observed pollution levels [35]. In the European Union, the total health and social costs due to domestic heating and cooking were estimated to be EUR 29 billion [36]. According to the same report, a coal boiler makes the largest contribution (EUR 1200 per year), and a wood stove makes the second-largest contribution (EUR 750 per year). Heat pumps are the superior choice both ecologically and economically, outperforming gas boilers with three times lower costs (EUR 30 per year compared to EUR 10 per year) [37]. By far, the best option is to use renewable energy sources, which have an estimated zero health-related social cost in the European Union [36]. The use of renewable sources can be a way to overcome problems, especially in smaller local areas where there is no adequate infrastructure [38], as is the case in a significant part of the municipalities in Serbia. The implementation of regulatory measures in the energy sector that promote innovative technologies and the utilization of renewable energy sources have a positive impact on reducing the emission of harmful gasses into the atmosphere [39]. In a study conducted across 29 European countries from 2005 to 2018, it was found that increased investment in renewable energy sources can significantly improve the population’s health by increasing life expectancy [40]. This improvement is primarily attributed to the reduction in PM2.5 emissions. According to this study, over the researched period, investment in sustainable energy sources was associated with an average increase in life expectancy of 12 months. Furthermore, the development of new technologies can play a significant role in reducing harmful emissions. Biochar-based air filter systems have been shown to effectively remove harmful combustion products [41,42]. Additionally, progress in thermal energy storage and conversion can contribute to bridging the gap between energy supply and demand [43,44].
Regulatory policies to reduce air pollution, i.e., PM2.5 concentration, should focus on the residential sector [45]. Some of the specific measures include restrictions regarding the fuels and equipment used for domestic heating. Such activities must be accompanied by state support in the form of subsidies, fees, and tax credits, as well as the promotion of the use of cleaner technologies and renewable energy sources [46]. In Serbia, the Law on Air Protection [47] determines the measures for controlling, protecting, and improving air quality. Additionally, many issues are more precisely defined by regulations, strategies, and plans. The main vision of the Air Quality Programme of the Republic of Serbia for the period 2022–2030 with an Action Plan (see National Program for further detail) [48] is to ensure that all citizens of Serbia are breathing clean ambient air by 2030. This will be achieved by conducting and implementing various legal acts in line with European Union legislation (such as Ambient Air Quality Directives, National Emission Reduction Commitments, directives and regulations regulating air pollution from specific sources in sectors such as industry and transport, energy packages, etc.) and international agreements and conventions (e.g., the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution). One of the objectives of this National Program is to achieve a 58.2% reduction in PM2.5 emissions by 2030 compared to the levels observed in 2015. This reduction pertains to emissions from the energy sector, transport, and individual heating equipment. The achievement of this goal should be accomplished by implementing acts aimed at limiting and controlling emissions from large, medium, and small combustion plants, forcing Euro standards (5/V and 6/VI [49,50,51]) for second-hand imported vehicles, and providing financial support for replacing existing household heating appliances with new Eco-Design-compliant appliances. Their successful implementation would ensure a reduction in emissions from large emitters, traffic, local communities, and households. Raising awareness among people about the negative effects of pollution on health is an important segment in the prevention of negative effects [52]. This is acknowledged in the fourth objective of the National Program [48]. It was also noted that to accommodate major changes in the implementation of this program, a partnership with scientific institutions and experts in the field of air quality research is necessary. The present study provides insights into the pollution levels and population exposure during the heating season. This is an advantage compared to previous quality reports, which were based on indicators determined for the entire year. The analysis of spatial variations in heating equipment in occupied dwellings at the municipal level and the types of fuels used shows the complexity of the problem. It requires significant institutional and economic resources to solve.
This study showed that the PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations are significantly higher than the recommended safe levels for the protection of public health during the heating season in Serbia, while long-lasting and intense episodes of pollution are common. Increasing the number of dwellings with central heating systems will undoubtedly improve the situation, particularly in areas where this percentage is low. A series of measures must also be taken to improve the combustion system’s efficiency, enhance the quality of the fuel used, and control emissions. In dwellings lacking heating installations, the primary heating sources are wood, followed by coal. One of the initial steps to address this issue is to establish cadastres that provide accurate information about heating appliances and the types of fuels used at the local level. On the other hand, there is a problem with air quality assessments due to the insufficient coverage of the territory by the air quality monitoring network. In this study, we utilized the available data on daily PM concentrations from the national monitoring network. It is apparent that there is a limited number of stations (Figure 1), while interruptions in the time series pose an additional research problem (Table 1). This makes it impossible to reliably determine trends and differences between various environments (urban, rural, industrial backgrounds, etc.) and to obtain more precise information about the influence of specific sources on air quality at the local level. In the future, our research goals include collecting and analyzing data related to this topic at the local level, such as through cadasters and inventories of pollution sources. We also aim to utilize alternative data sets with high spatio-temporal resolution, such as gridded data sets.

5. Conclusions

This paper presents the extent of air pollution related to PM10 and PM2.5 concentrations in Serbia during the heating season. On average, for most of the stations analyzed, PM10 levels were significantly higher than the recommended WHO GQL during the heating season. The situation is much more serious regarding PM2.5, where all observed stations had higher concentrations than those considered to be safe for public health. However, the analysis of extreme events indicates severe pollution due to duration and intensity. This situation is extremely detrimental to public health, placing Serbia among the top European countries in terms of mortality and morbidity associated with air pollution. The analysis of the domestic heating sector, which is the primary cause of PM emissions in Serbia, revealed several issues. In most municipalities, there was a relatively low representation of dwellings with heating installations and even less of those with central heating systems. Occupied dwellings with district heating and those without heating installations in which wood was used as fuel were dominant. Locally, this can cause serious air quality problems, as the results revealed.
This research offers insight into the current status of heating installations and fuel usage in Serbia, based on the most recent available data. It is directly related to the PM concentrations measured during the heating season, bearing in mind that the heating sector has the largest share in emissions. Since current estimates of air pollution exposure are based on mean annual concentrations, they ignore the very harmful effects on the population during extreme pollution episodes. The episodes mostly occur during the heating season, which indicates very unfavorable conditions. The separation and categorization of pollution episodes carried out can establish a basis for evaluating the effects of poor air quality on the population and the environment. This study offers policymakers valuable insight and evidence into the extent of pollution. It can also be used to revise existing legal regulations and air quality standards. Clearly, there are significant challenges in achieving sustainable development in Serbia. Many domestic laws promoting sustainability are based on international and European standards and regulations, especially in the field of air quality. The present study will help to identify the interventions required to accomplish that objective. However, the primary focus should be on making changes in the domestic heating sector. Investing in the heating sector to reduce pollutant emissions will minimize health effects and have long-term economic effects. Therefore, efficient public policies in this sector in Serbia are necessary. Development strategies should prioritize cleaner technologies and renewable energy sources while also launching campaigns to educate the population about measures to reduce negative health effects under current conditions. Also, air quality monitoring should be based on a greater number of stations, with wider coverage of Serbia’s territory and improved operational stability. This will provide reliable data for population exposure assessment. The focus of future studies will involve more comprehensive assessments of the impacts of excessive air pollution at the local level during the heating season in Serbia.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.S. and S.M.-M.; methodology, G.S.; formal analysis, G.S.; investigation, G.S. and S.M.-M.; resources, T.P. and E.B.; writing—original draft preparation, G.S.; writing—review and editing, S.M.-M., M.M. and M.M.R.; visualization, T.P.; supervision, M.M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia, contract numbers 451-03-66/2024-03/200172.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Study area with the positions of PM monitoring stations.
Figure 1. Study area with the positions of PM monitoring stations.
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Figure 2. The box plots of daily PM10 (μg/m3) from the stations in Serbia during the heating and non-heating seasons for the period 2011–2022.
Figure 2. The box plots of daily PM10 (μg/m3) from the stations in Serbia during the heating and non-heating seasons for the period 2011–2022.
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Figure 3. The box plots for daily PM2.5 (μg/m3) from the stations in Serbia during the heating and non-heating seasons for the period 2016–2022.
Figure 3. The box plots for daily PM2.5 (μg/m3) from the stations in Serbia during the heating and non-heating seasons for the period 2016–2022.
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Figure 4. Daily mean of PM10 during the heating and non-heating seasons in stations in Serbia (2011–2022).
Figure 4. Daily mean of PM10 during the heating and non-heating seasons in stations in Serbia (2011–2022).
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Figure 5. Daily mean of PM2.5 during the heating and non-heating seasons in stations in Serbia (2016–2022).
Figure 5. Daily mean of PM2.5 during the heating and non-heating seasons in stations in Serbia (2016–2022).
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Figure 6. The ranged (a) max Eduration, (b) max Emean, and (c) max Ecumsum for PM10 events at stations in Serbia.
Figure 6. The ranged (a) max Eduration, (b) max Emean, and (c) max Ecumsum for PM10 events at stations in Serbia.
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Figure 7. The ranged (a) max Eduration, (b) max Emean, and (c) max Ecumsum for PM2.5 events at stations in Serbia.
Figure 7. The ranged (a) max Eduration, (b) max Emean, and (c) max Ecumsum for PM2.5 events at stations in Serbia.
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Figure 8. Number of occupied dwellings in Serbia.
Figure 8. Number of occupied dwellings in Serbia.
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Figure 9. Occupied dwellings according to the presence of heating installations in municipalities in Serbia: (a) Dhi, (b) Dhicentral, (c) Dhidictrict, and (d) Dgasi.
Figure 9. Occupied dwellings according to the presence of heating installations in municipalities in Serbia: (a) Dhi, (b) Dhicentral, (c) Dhidictrict, and (d) Dgasi.
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Figure 10. The occupied dwellings without central heating according to the fuels used: (a) Dwccoal, (b) Dwcwood, (c) Dwcelectricity, and (d) Dwcgas.
Figure 10. The occupied dwellings without central heating according to the fuels used: (a) Dwccoal, (b) Dwcwood, (c) Dwcelectricity, and (d) Dwcgas.
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Figure 11. The occupied dwellings without heating installation according to the fuels used: (a) Dwccoal, (b) Dwcwood, (c) Dwcelectricity, and (d) Dwcgas.
Figure 11. The occupied dwellings without heating installation according to the fuels used: (a) Dwccoal, (b) Dwcwood, (c) Dwcelectricity, and (d) Dwcgas.
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Table 1. The monitoring stations are listed by their full names, with the station type, coverage area, and the number of available years for the analysis.
Table 1. The monitoring stations are listed by their full names, with the station type, coverage area, and the number of available years for the analysis.
StationFull NameTypeAreaPMNo. of Years
BE_CEBeočin CentarBackgroundUrbanPM106
PM2.53
BG_MOBeograd MostarTrafficUrbanPM109
PM2.54
BG_NGBeograd Novi BeogradBackgroundUrbanPM109
PM2.54
BG_STBeograd Stari gradBackgroundUrbanPM109
PM2.55
BG_VRBeograd VračarBackgroundUrbanPM109
PM2.53
BG_ZBBeograd Zeleno BrdoBackgroundSuburbanPM105
BO_GPBor Gradski parkIndustrialUrbanPM104
PM2.54
KGKragujevacBackgroundUrbanPM107
KM_VISKamenički VisBackgroundRuralPM109
KOSJKosjerićBackgroundSuburbanPM109
PM2.55
KOSTKostolacBackgroundSuburbanPM104
NI_IZJZNiš Institut za javno zdravlje NišTrafficUrbanPM109
PM2.55
NI_OSNiš O.Š. “Sveti Sava”BackgroundUrbanPM104
PM2.54
NPNovi PazarBackgroundUrbanPM103
PM2.53
NS_LIMNovi Sad LimanBackgroundUrbanPM105
NS_RUNovi Sad RumenačkaTrafficUrbanPM103
PM2.53
NS_SPNovi Sad SpensTrafficUrbanPM106
OB_CEObrenovac CentarTrafficSuburbanPM107
PM2.53
PPPopovacIndustrialSuburbanPM106
PM2.54
SD_CASmederevo CarinaBackgroundSuburbanPM104
SD_CESmederevo CentarTrafficUrbanPM106
PM2.55
SD_RASmederevo RadinacIndustrialSuburbanPM104
UEUžiceTrafficUrbanPM109
PM2.53
VAValjevoBackgroundUrbanPM1010
PM2.54
ZAZaječarBackgroundUrbanPM104
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Stanojević, G.; Malinović-Milićević, S.; Brđanin, E.; Milanović, M.; Radovanović, M.M.; Popović, T. Impact of Domestic Heating on Air Pollution—Extreme Pollution Events in Serbia. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187920

AMA Style

Stanojević G, Malinović-Milićević S, Brđanin E, Milanović M, Radovanović MM, Popović T. Impact of Domestic Heating on Air Pollution—Extreme Pollution Events in Serbia. Sustainability. 2024; 16(18):7920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187920

Chicago/Turabian Style

Stanojević, Gorica, Slavica Malinović-Milićević, Eldin Brđanin, Miško Milanović, Milan M. Radovanović, and Teodora Popović. 2024. "Impact of Domestic Heating on Air Pollution—Extreme Pollution Events in Serbia" Sustainability 16, no. 18: 7920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187920

APA Style

Stanojević, G., Malinović-Milićević, S., Brđanin, E., Milanović, M., Radovanović, M. M., & Popović, T. (2024). Impact of Domestic Heating on Air Pollution—Extreme Pollution Events in Serbia. Sustainability, 16(18), 7920. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16187920

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