Innovative and Sustainable Food Preservation Techniques: Enhancing Food Quality, Safety, and Environmental Sustainability

Abstract

Innovative and sustainable food preservation techniques are vital for enhancing food quality, safety, and reducing environmental impact. In this review, the methods aligned with sustainability goals are explored, focusing on their mechanisms, applications, and environmental benefits. It examines non-thermal technologies such as cold plasma, pulsed light technology, high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric fields (PEFs), and ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which effectively inactivate microbes while preserving nutritional and sensory qualities. Natural preservatives, including plant extracts, microbial agents, and enzymes, are highlighted as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic chemicals, supporting clean label initiatives. Advanced packaging solutions, such as biodegradable materials, intelligent packaging systems, and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), are assessed for their role in reducing plastic waste, maintaining product quality, and extending shelf life. The review uses life cycle analyses to evaluate these techniques’ environmental impact, considering factors like energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and waste reduction. It also explores the potential of emerging technologies, such as plasma-activated water (PAW) and nanotechnology, to further enhance sustainability. By identifying research gaps and discussing industry challenges, the review calls for innovation and the broader adoption of these practices to promote food security, improve public health, and foster a more sustainable and resilient food system

1. Introduction

Food preservation is a crucial aspect of food security and safety, aiming to extend the shelf life of products while maintaining their nutritional quality, safety, and sensory attributes [1]. Traditional preservation methods, such as refrigeration, freezing, canning, and chemical preservatives, have played a significant role in ensuring food availability [2]. However, these methods often come with environmental and health concerns, including high energy consumption, the generation of greenhouse gases, and the potential presence of harmful chemical residues [3]. In an era where sustainability is increasingly prioritized, the food industry faces the challenge of adopting innovative, eco-friendly preservation techniques that align with global efforts to reduce the environmental impact and ensure public health.

The concept of sustainable food preservation involves using methods and technologies that not only effectively preserve food but also minimize environmental footprints and enhance food safety and quality. This review seeks to explore and advance the field by highlighting innovative preservation techniques that are both environmentally friendly and effective. Among the cutting-edge technologies gaining attention are cold plasma and pulsed light, which offer promising alternatives to conventional methods [4,5]. Additionally, the use of natural preservatives and advanced packaging solutions, such as biodegradable materials and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), presents significant opportunities for reducing reliance on synthetic chemicals and improving sustainability [6,7].

Despite the progress in developing sustainable preservation methods, there remains a substantial research gap in understanding the comprehensive impact of these technologies on food quality, safety, and shelf life [8]. Moreover, the practical challenges and opportunities associated with implementing these methods in the food industry need further exploration. This review addresses these gaps by analyzing innovative preservation technologies, their mechanisms, applications, benefits, and limitations. The objectives of this paper are threefold, as follows: (1) to highlight and evaluate the most recent advances in sustainable food preservation techniques; (2) to assess the impact of these methods on food quality, safety, and shelf life; and (3) to discuss their potential role in reducing global food waste.

This review distinguishes itself by systematically exploring a comprehensive range of innovative and sustainable food preservation technologies that have not been extensively covered in the previous literature. While the existing reviews often concentrate on individual technologies or specific food types, this manuscript offers a holistic analysis of non-thermal technologies such as cold plasma, pulsed light technology, high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric fields (PEFs), and ultraviolet (UV) radiation, alongside natural preservatives and advanced packaging solutions. A distinctive feature of this review is its assessment of these technologies through the lens of their environmental impact, utilizing life cycle analyses that consider factors like energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, water use, and waste reduction. This comprehensive approach facilitates a more integrated understanding of how these technologies contribute to sustainability.

Furthermore, this review advances the literature by incorporating environmental impact assessments, setting it apart from prior studies that mainly emphasize the efficacy of preservation techniques. By including detailed life cycle analyses, the review introduces a novel perspective on the environmental sustainability of these technologies. Additionally, it bridges the gap between research and industrial application by addressing practical considerations for the adoption of these technologies in industrial settings, an aspect frequently overlooked in academic reviews. The review also highlights underexplored technologies by examining emerging methods and their potential for future applications, thereby paving the way for new research directions and innovation pathways in the field of sustainable food preservation.

2. Innovative Preservation Technologies

Innovative preservation technologies are crucial for maintaining the quality, safety, and nutritional value of food products, as well as for extending their shelf life. These technologies encompass a range of methods, including physical, electromagnetic, and biological techniques, and are applied across various stages of the food supply chain. This synthesis highlights the key insights from recent research on innovative preservation technologies. Figure 1 provides an overview of the different innovative preservation technologies addressed in the present work.

Table 1. Summary of innovative preservation techniques.

Technology	Mechanism	Applications	Advantages	Challenges	Shelf Life Extension
Cold Plasma	Uses ionized gas to create reactive species that damage microbial cells.	Fresh produce, meat, poultry, dairy.	No chemical residues, suitable for heat-sensitive foods.	High equipment cost, scalability, regulatory challenges.	Extends shelf life by 3–10 days for fresh produce and meats.
Pulsed Light Technology	Intense, short-duration pulses of UV light that damage microbial DNA and cellular structures.	Fresh produce, dairy, meat, poultry.	Rapid process, no heat damage, maintains sensory qualities.	Limited to surface decontamination, high initial equipment cost.	Extends shelf life by 1–7 days for fruits and vegetables, up to 2 weeks for dairy products.
High-Pressure Processing (HPP)	Applies high pressure to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes without significant heat.	Juices, dairy, fruits, vegetables, meats.	Maintains nutritional and sensory qualities, extends shelf life.	High energy consumption, not suitable for all food types, costly equipment.	Extends shelf life by up to 3 months for juices and dairy, 2–4 weeks for fresh produce.
Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation	Uses UV-C light to damage microbial DNA and prevent replication.	Water, juices, fresh produce, meat, dairy.	Non-thermal, preserves nutritional and sensory qualities, cost-effective.	Limited penetration, potential for nutrient degradation, requires careful control.	Extends shelf life by 2–7 days for fresh produce and juices, 7–14 days for meat and dairy.
Ozone Treatment	Oxidative properties of ozone disrupt microbial cellular components.	Fruits, vegetables, dairy, grains.	No chemical residues, effective against various microorganisms, eco-friendly.	Potential for food quality changes at high concentrations, requires optimization.	Extends shelf life by 7–14 days for fruits and vegetables, up to 30 days for grains and dairy.
Pulsed Electric Fields (PEF)	Short bursts of high voltage disrupt microbial cell membranes (electroporation).	Juices, milk, liquid egg products, semi-liquid foods.	Non-thermal, preserves heat-sensitive nutrients, rapid processing.	High equipment cost, variability based on food type, potential off-flavors.	Extends shelf life by 2–4 weeks for juices, up to 1 month for liquid eggs and dairy.

provides a summary of the advances in this field.

2.1. Cold Plasma

Cold plasma technology involves the use of ionized gas at room temperature to inactivate microorganisms on food surfaces [9]. Plasma is generated by applying energy to a gas, causing the gas molecules to ionize and form reactive species, including ions, electrons, radicals, and UV photons [10]. These reactive species interact with microbial cell membranes, DNA, and proteins, leading to cellular damage and death. The non-thermal nature of cold plasma makes it particularly suitable for preserving heat-sensitive foods, as it effectively inactivates pathogens without compromising the food’s nutritional and sensory qualities [4].

Cold plasma has been successfully applied to a variety of food products to extend shelf life and ensure safety. For instance, it has significantly reduced microbial load on fresh produce such as strawberries, tomatoes, and leafy greens, thereby extending their shelf life without affecting their texture, color, or flavor [11]. Similarly, cold plasma was used on fruit juices such as pomegranate [12], apple [13], and others [14]. In meat and poultry products, cold plasma has been used to decontaminate and reduce the presence of pathogens like Salmonella and E. coli, enhancing the safety of these products while maintaining their sensory properties [15,16]. Additionally, cold plasma has been applied to dairy products, including milk and cheese, to inactivate spoilage microorganisms and pathogens, contributing to longer shelf life and improved safety [17,18,19,20].

One of the primary advantages of cold plasma technology is that it does not rely on chemical preservatives, thus reducing the risk of chemical residues on food products. This makes it a more natural and consumer-friendly preservation method. As a non-thermal process, cold plasma can be used on heat-sensitive foods without altering their nutritional and sensory qualities; however some research has found that prolonged exposure causes modification of some sensorial aspects as color [21] and composition, namely, influence of the fatty acid profile [22]. Moreover, cold plasma is highly effective at inactivating a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, thereby enhancing food safety and shelf life [23].

However, the high cost of the equipment required to generate and apply plasma is a significant challenge, particularly for small and medium-sized food producers [10]. Scaling up the technology for industrial applications also presents technical and economic challenges, as ensuring uniform plasma exposure and maintaining consistent treatment efficacy across large volumes of food can be difficult [24]. Additionally, the introduction of any new technology in the food industry requires a thorough evaluation of its safety and compliance with regulatory standards [25]. There may be concerns about the long-term effects of plasma-treated foods that need to be addressed through rigorous research and regulatory oversight.

In summary, cold plasma technology offers a promising alternative to traditional food preservation methods, combining effective microbial inactivation with minimal impact on food quality. However, addressing the challenges of equipment cost, scalability, and regulatory approval will be crucial for its widespread adoption in the food industry.

2.2. Pulsed Light Technology

Pulsed light technology (PL) preserves food through the application of intense, short-duration pulses of broad-spectrum light, primarily in the ultraviolet (UV) range [26,27]. This high-energy light rapidly inactivates microorganisms on the surface of food products by damaging their DNA and cellular structures, leading to microbial death [28,29]. The pulses are typically delivered in microseconds, ensuring that the treatment is both effective and rapid without significantly raising the temperature of the food [30]. This non-thermal process is particularly advantageous for preserving the nutritional and sensory qualities of heat-sensitive foods.

Pulsed light technology has been effectively applied to a variety of food products, demonstrating its versatility and potential. In fresh produce, the studies have shown that pulsed light treatment can reduce the presence of pathogens like E. coli and listeria on the surface of fruits and vegetables [31,32,33,34]. In the dairy industry, pulsed light has been used to reduce microbial contamination on the surface of cheese, enhancing its safety and extending its shelf life without altering its sensory properties [35,36]. The technology has also been applied to meats and poultry where it has been effective in reducing surface microbial contamination, thus improving the overall safety and shelf life of these items [37,38,39].

By inactivating a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi, pulsed light enhances food safety and extends shelf life without chemical preservatives [40]. This aligns with consumer demand for more natural and minimally processed foods. Moreover, pulsed light treatment is a rapid process that can be easily integrated into existing production lines, potentially improving efficiency in food processing operations [41].

Despite these advantages, several challenges are associated with using pulsed light technology. One potential drawback is the limited penetration depth of light, which restricts its effectiveness to the surface of food products [42]. This means that it may not be suitable for foods with complex surfaces or internal contamination [43]. Additionally, the effectiveness of pulsed light can be influenced by the physical properties of the food, such as color, surface texture, and moisture content, which may require optimization of treatment parameters for different products. For example, foods with larger surface areas, like chopped garlic, show higher microbial inactivation compared to those with smaller or rougher surfaces, such as peeled garlic and Manila clams [44]. However, rough surfaces, like those of Manila clams, result in lower microbial inactivation compared to smoother surfaces, such as squid [44]. Additionally, opaque and irregular surfaces, such as those of seeds and powdered foods, pose challenges for PL treatment due to their low water activity and opaqueness. However, significant microbial reductions can still be achieved with optimized PL conditions [45]. Another challenge is the initial cost of the equipment, which can be high, potentially limiting its adoption by smaller food producers. Finally, there may be regulatory hurdles and the need for comprehensive safety evaluations to ensure that pulsed light-treated foods meet all health and safety standards [46,47].

2.3. High-Pressure Processing (HPP)

High-pressure processing (HPP) is a non-thermal food preservation technology that employs extremely high pressure, typically between 300 and 600 MPa, to inactivate microorganisms and enzymes in food [48,49]. This process works by subjecting food products to high pressure in a water-based medium, which disrupts the cellular functions of microorganisms without significantly increasing the temperature. As a result, HPP effectively inactivates pathogens and spoilage organisms while preserving the food’s nutritional and sensory qualities [50]. The mechanism of HPP relies on the principle that high pressure disrupts the integrity of microbial cell membranes, leading to cell lysis and death [51]. Additionally, high pressure can denature enzymes that cause spoilage, thereby extending the shelf life of food products [52]. The process is uniform and instantaneous, ensuring that all parts of the food product are subjected to the same pressure, which enhances its effectiveness. HPP stands out as a compelling alternative to traditional thermal processing methods, addressing the increasing consumer demand for minimally processed foods that retain their natural flavors, textures, and nutritional value [53].

HPP effectively inactivates pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, thereby enhancing food safety and extending shelf life [54]. The effectiveness of HPP in inactivating foodborne pathogens like Salmonella and various viruses has been well-documented [55,56]. This capability makes HPP a reliable method for improving the microbiological safety of a wide range of food products, contributing to extended shelf life and reduced risk of foodborne illnesses. One of the significant advantages of HPP is its ability to preserve the nutritional and sensory qualities of food better than thermal processing methods. HPP-treated foods maintain their natural flavors, textures, and nutritional value [57,58,59]. For instance, the retention of ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in HPP-treated fruits and vegetables is notably better compared to those that undergo thermal processing [58]. This preservation of vitamins and other sensitive nutrients is a critical factor in the growing acceptance and popularity of HPP among health-conscious consumers who seek nutrient-rich and fresh-tasting food products.

HPP significantly extends the shelf life of various food products by reducing microbial loads and preventing spoilage on meats [60,61], fish [62], beverages [63], fruits [53,64,65], and dairy [66]. The reduction in spoilage microorganisms results in prolonged freshness and shelf life, which are crucial for both retailers and consumers. The extended shelf life also contributes to reducing food waste, aligning with sustainability goals and providing economic benefits to food producers.

Combining HPP with other preservation methods, such as natural antimicrobials or essential oils, can enhance microbial inactivation, allowing for milder HPP conditions and reducing processing costs [67,68,69,70]. This synergistic approach leverages the strengths of different preservation techniques, offering a more effective and economically viable solution for food safety and quality. For instance, the combination of HPP with natural antimicrobials can result in more efficient microbial control, enabling the use of lower pressures or shorter processing times.

Despite its advantages, HPP is not universally applicable to all food types. Certain dairy and animal products, as well as shelf-stable low-acid foods, may not be suitable for HPP treatment [54]. Additionally, further research is needed to fully understand the scientific theories behind HPP and to optimize processing parameters for different food products [71]. The limitations in applying HPP to a broader range of food products highlight the need for ongoing research and innovation in this field.

In conclusion, high-pressure processing (HPP) is a promising non-thermal food preservation technology that effectively inactivates microorganisms, extends shelf life, and preserves the nutritional and sensory qualities of food. While it offers significant advantages over traditional thermal methods, its application is limited to certain food types, and further research is needed to optimize its use across a broader range of products. Combining HPP with other preservation methods, such as natural antimicrobials, can enhance its effectiveness and reduce processing costs. As the food industry continues to seek innovative ways to meet consumer demands for high-quality, minimally processed foods, HPP stands out as a valuable tool with the potential to revolutionize food preservation.

2.4. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, particularly UV-C light, is a non-thermal food preservation technology that inactivates microorganisms on the surface of food products [72]. UV-C light, with wavelengths between 200 and 280 nm, is highly effective at penetrating microbial cells and damaging their DNA, thereby preventing replication and causing cell death [73,74]. This mechanism is effective against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi. UV treatment’s non-thermal nature ensures that the food’s nutritional and sensory qualities are preserved, making it suitable for fresh and minimally processed foods [75].

UV radiation has a wide range of applications in food preservation. It is commonly used for disinfecting water, juices, and fresh produce [76]. For instance, UV treatment reduces the microbial load on the surface of fruits such as apples and tomatoes, helping to extend their shelf life while maintaining their quality. In liquid products like apple cider and milk, UV radiation effectively reduces microbial contamination, enhancing safety and shelf life [72,77]. UV treatment is also utilized in processing meat and poultry, where it can reduce surface pathogens without affecting the sensory properties of the products [78]. Additionally, UV radiation is used in the food packaging industry to sterilize packaging materials, ensuring they do not introduce contaminants into the food products [79].

The main advantage of UV radiation is its effectiveness in microbial inactivation without the use of chemicals, aligning with the increasing consumer demand for natural and minimally processed foods. UV treatment has a relatively low operational cost and can be easily integrated into existing production lines, making it a cost-effective solution for many food producers [80]. However, there are several challenges associated with UV radiation. UV-C light primarily affects the surface of food products due to its low penetration depth, leading to changes in the textural and rheological properties of the surface [81]. This limitation means that UV treatment’s effectiveness is confined to the surface area, making it less suitable for foods with irregular surfaces or internal contamination [82,83]. Consequently, UV treatment might not adequately address microbial contamination beneath the surface or within crevices of food products.

When UV treatment is incorrectly applied, it can significantly alter the composition of foods. These alterations can include protein digestion issues, antioxidant damage, lipid oxidation, and changes in color and flavor [84]. UV radiation’s impact on food quality extends to the potential degradation of essential nutrients. For instance, UV exposure can cause significant losses in photosensitive vitamins, such as vitamin C, B12, B6, B2, folic acid, and fat-soluble vitamins A, K, and E2 [85]. The degradation of these vitamins not only affects the nutritional value of the food but can also influence its overall sensory attributes, leading to less desirable products for consumers. Thus, while UV-C light can be a useful tool in food preservation, its application must be carefully controlled to avoid adverse effects on food quality. Despite these challenges, UV radiation remains a promising and versatile technology for enhancing food safety and extending shelf life.

2.5. Ozone Treatment

Ozone treatment is a powerful and environmentally friendly method used in food processing to inactivate microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi [86,87]. This technique leverages the strong oxidative properties of ozone (O₃) to disrupt the cellular components of pathogens, ensuring food safety and extending shelf life without leaving harmful residues [88].

Ozone is highly effective in inactivating a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, by reacting with intracellular enzymes and cell membranes [89]. This high efficacy stems from ozone’s ability to oxidize essential cellular components, effectively neutralizing the microorganisms [90]. One of the significant advantages of ozone is its decomposition into oxygen, leaving no harmful residues, which makes it a safe option for food processing [91]. This aspect of ozone treatment addresses consumer and regulatory concerns about chemical residues in food products.

Ozone treatment has been successfully applied to various food products, including fruits [92], vegetables [93], dairy products [94], and grains [95], to control microbial growth and extend shelf life. Specific studies have demonstrated significant reductions in microbial counts on dried figs [96], red bell peppers [97], strawberries [98], and watercress with ozone treatment [99]. These applications showcase ozone’s versatility and effectiveness across different types of food, making it a valuable tool for various segments of the food industry.

Both gaseous and aqueous ozone are effective in microbial inactivation [100]. Gaseous ozone is particularly useful for surface decontamination, while aqueous ozone can be used for washing produce [101]. The combination of ozone with other treatments, such as blanching or UV light, can enhance its antimicrobial effects [102,103]. This multi-faceted approach can provide more comprehensive microbial control, ensuring higher safety standards in food processing.

Ozone treatment generally maintains the sensory and nutritional quality of food products when the appropriate dose and duration are determined [104]. However, improper use or high concentrations can lead to undesirable changes in food quality. For instance, while ozone treatment does not significantly affect the quality of grains and dairy products excessive ozone levels or prolonged exposure can cause oxidative damage to certain food components [105,106]. Therefore, it is crucial to optimize ozone concentrations and exposure times to balance microbial inactivation and food quality preservation.

Ozone is a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to traditional chemical sanitizers and pesticides, addressing concerns over chemical residues and environmental impact [107]. Its use in food processing not only enhances food safety and extends shelf life but also reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals, contributing to more sustainable food production practices.

2.6. Pulsed Electric Fields (PEFs)

Pulsed electric field (PEF) technology involves applying short bursts of high-voltage electric fields to food products, typically in the range of 20 to 80 kV/cm [108]. These electric fields create pores in the cell membranes of microorganisms through a process known as electroporation [109]. The disruption of cell membranes leads to loss of cell viability and subsequent microbial inactivation [110]. PEF is a non-thermal method, meaning it does not significantly raise the temperature of the food during processing [111]. This characteristic is particularly beneficial for preserving the sensory and nutritional qualities of food, as it prevents the degradation of heat-sensitive compounds such as vitamins and flavor components.

PEF technology is primarily used for liquid and semi-liquid foods due to the ease of applying uniform electric fields. It has been widely applied in preserving fruit juices [112,113], milk [114], and liquid egg products [115]. For example, PEFs have been shown to effectively extend the shelf life of orange juice [116] and apple juice [117], while maintaining their fresh taste, color, and nutritional content, which can be degraded by traditional thermal pasteurization methods. In the dairy industry, PEFs have been used to process milk, resulting in a significant reduction in microbial load without affecting its flavor, texture, or nutritional properties [118,119]. Liquid egg products, which are highly susceptible to microbial contamination, have also benefited from PEF treatment, resulting in safer products with extended shelf life [120].

In addition to these applications, PEFs have potential uses in other food processing areas. It can be applied to enhance the extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials [121,122,123], improve meat tenderization [124], and facilitate the infusion of marinades and flavors into food products [125,126]. The technology is also being explored for its potential to improve the drying process of fruits and vegetables by enhancing moisture removal and reducing drying times [127,128].

PEFs offer several significant advantages as a food preservation method. One of the main benefits is their ability to inactivate microorganisms without significant heating, thus maintaining the quality of heat-sensitive foods. This non-thermal nature ensures that food’s sensory and nutritional qualities are preserved, making PEF-treated products more appealing to consumers seeking fresh-tasting and nutritionally intact foods. PEFs are also energy-efficient, as they require less energy than traditional thermal pasteurization processes, leading to potential cost savings and a reduced environmental footprint [129,130]. Additionally, the relatively short processing time of PEFs, which can be completed in seconds, enhances the efficiency of food processing operations since they can be applied continuously while the liquid fluid is pumped [131].

However, there are several challenges associated with the implementation of PEF technology. The high cost of the equipment, including the pulse generators and treatment chambers, can be a barrier to adoption, particularly for small and medium-sized food producers [132]. Additionally, the effectiveness of PEFs can vary depending on the type of food product and its properties, such as conductivity, pH, and temperature. This necessitates the optimization of treatment parameters for different products to ensure consistent microbial inactivation and product quality [133]. Another challenge is the potential for the formation of electrochemical reactions at the electrode–food interface, which can lead to the generation of undesirable by-products or off-flavors. This issue requires careful electrode design and material selection to minimize such effects [134]. Furthermore, while PEFs have been extensively studied and proven effective in laboratory settings, scaling up the technology for industrial applications requires further research and development to address technical and logistical challenges [135,136].

In conclusion, PEFs are a promising non-thermal preservation technology that offers significant benefits in terms of maintaining food quality and safety. Despite the challenges associated with implementation, ongoing advances in equipment design and process optimization are likely to enhance its feasibility and adoption in the food industry. As consumer demand for minimally processed, high-quality foods continues to grow, PEFs stand out as a valuable tool for meeting these demands while ensuring food safety and extending shelf life.

3. Natural Preservatives

Natural food preservatives are substances derived from natural sources that help extend the shelf life of food by preventing spoilage caused by microbial growth, oxidation, and enzymatic activity. With increasing consumer concerns over the health risks associated with synthetic preservatives, there is a growing interest in natural alternatives.

Table 2. Summary of natural preservatives.

Preservative	Source	Mechanism	Applications	Advantages	Challenges	Shelf Life Extension
Plant Extracts	Essential oils, phenolic compounds, flavonoids.	Antimicrobial and antioxidant actions (e.g., disrupting cell membranes, inhibiting enzymes).	Meats, dairy, fruits, vegetables, beverages.	Natural, multifunctional, consumer-friendly, effective at low concentrations.	Strong taste, variable effectiveness depending on conditions.	Extends shelf life by 3–14 days for fruits and vegetables, up to 7 days for meats and dairy.
Microbial Preservatives	Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), bacteriocins.	Production of antimicrobial substances (e.g., organic acids, peptides) during fermentation.	Dairy, meats, bakery, beverages.	Natural, clean label, multifunctional.	Dependent on specific microbial strains and conditions.	Extends shelf life by 1–4 weeks for dairy products, 7–14 days for meats and baked goods.
Enzymatic Preservatives	Enzymes like lysozyme, lacto-peroxidase.	Degrade or modify components used by spoilage organisms (e.g., cell wall hydrolysis, oxidation).	Dairy, meats, beverages, bakery.	Natural, effective at low concentrations.	Potential allergenicity, stability dependent on pH and temperature.	Extends shelf life by 7–14 days for dairy and beverages, up to 10 days for meats and bakery items.

summarizes some advances in the natural preservatives field.

3.1. Plant Extracts

Plant extracts have been used for centuries as natural preservatives due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant properties [137]. Common plant extracts used as preservatives include essential oils [138], phenolic compounds [139], and flavonoids [140]. Essential oils derived from thyme, oregano, rosemary, and clove are rich in bioactive compounds like thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, and rosmarinic acid [141]. These compounds have strong antimicrobial activities against various pathogens and spoilage microorganisms [142].

Phenolic compounds extracted from plants such as grapes, olives, and green tea include tannins, catechins, and resveratrol [143]. These compounds exhibit potent antioxidant properties, which help preserve the quality and extend the shelf life of food products [144]. Flavonoids in citrus fruits, onions, and berries include quercetin, kaempferol, and rutin [145]. These compounds have been shown to possess antimicrobial and antioxidant activities, making them effective natural preservatives [146,147].

The mechanisms by which plant extracts preserve food primarily involve antimicrobial and antioxidant actions [148]. Antimicrobial activity is achieved through several mechanisms, including disrupting microbial cell membranes, inhibiting microbial enzyme activity, and interfering with microbial DNA synthesis [149]. For instance, essential oils such as thymol and carvacrol disrupt the cell membrane integrity of bacteria, leading to leakage of the cell contents and cell death [150,151]. Phenolic compounds like tannins inhibit the activity of microbial enzymes essential for growth and metabolism [152], while flavonoids can bind to microbial DNA, preventing replication and transcription [146]. Antioxidant activity of plant extracts is attributed to their ability to scavenge free radicals, chelate metal ions, and inhibit lipid peroxidation [153,154]. These actions prevent the oxidative degradation of food components, thereby preserving the nutritional quality and sensory attributes of food products. For example, rosmarinic acid and resveratrol neutralize free radicals and stabilize cell membranes, which helps maintain freshness and extend the food’s shelf life [155]. Figure 2 schematizes the effect of different compounds on the bacteria.

In meat and poultry products, essential oils such as rosemary and thyme have been incorporated into marinades or coatings to inhibit the growth of spoilage bacteria and pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella [156,157,158]. Additionally, bioactive compounds find application in meat as natural antioxidants [159]. Combining plant extracts with other natural antimicrobials, organic acids, or chelating agents can enhance their antimicrobial efficacy. For instance, rosemary extract combined with mint extract or tocopherols showed significant synergistic effects in inhibiting microbial growth and lipid oxidation in beef sausage [160].

In dairy products, phenolic compounds from olives and green tea have been used to prevent lipid oxidation and microbial spoilage [161,162,163], For example, incorporating olive leaf extract into cheese can significantly reduce lipid oxidation and microbial growth, thereby extending the product’s shelf life while maintaining its sensory qualities [164,165]. Similarly, green tea catechins have been added to yogurt to enhance its antioxidant capacity and prolong its freshness [166].

Plant extracts have also found applications in the preservation of fruits and vegetables [167,168]. Rich in flavonoids, citrus extracts have been used to coat fresh produce, providing a natural barrier against microbial contamination and oxidative damage [169,170]. Similar treatment with bioactive compounds has effectively extended the shelf life of strawberries [171,172], apples [173], and tomatoes [174] without affecting their taste or texture [175]. In the beverage industry, plant extracts such as grape seed extract and tea polyphenols are used to prevent microbial spoilage and oxidative deterioration [176,177,178]. These natural preservatives help in maintaining the clarity, flavor, and nutritional value of beverages like fruit juices, teas, and wine [179]. Additionally, plant extracts are used in bakery products to prevent mold growth and staling [180,181]. For example, clove and cinnamon essential oils have been incorporated into bread and cakes to inhibit mold development and extend shelf life while adding a pleasant aroma and flavor [182,183,184].

While plant extracts are effective, their strong taste and potential side effects need to be managed, especially in food applications where sensory attributes are crucial [176]. The effectiveness of plant extracts can vary based on factors such as the extraction method, concentration, and the specific microorganisms targeted [185]. For example, extracts from plants like Punica granatum and Phyllanthus emblica have demonstrated strong bacteriostatic and bactericidal activities against foodborne pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli [186].

Overall, plant extracts provide a versatile and effective means of preserving a wide range of food products. Their natural origin and multifunctional properties make them an attractive alternative to synthetic preservatives, aligning with consumer preferences for clean label and minimally processed foods. However, the effectiveness of plant extracts can vary depending on factors such as concentration, food matrix, and processing conditions, necessitating further research and optimization for specific applications.

3.2. Microbial and Enzymatic Preservatives

Microbial and enzymatic preservatives play a crucial role in food preservation by inhibiting the growth of spoilage microorganisms and pathogens, thereby extending the shelf life and ensuring the safety of food products [187]. These agents work through various mechanisms, including competition for nutrients, production of antimicrobial compounds, and enzymatic degradation of undesirable substances [188].

Microbial preservatives often involve the use of beneficial bacteria, such as lactic acid bacteria (LAB), which produce organic acids (e.g., lactic acid) [189], bacteriocins [190], hydrogen peroxide [191], and other antimicrobial substances during fermentation [192]. These compounds lower the pH, create an inhospitable environment for the spoilage organisms and pathogens, and directly inhibit their growth. For example, bacteriocins like nisin and pediocin are ribosomally synthesized antimicrobial peptides produced by certain strains of LAB that can effectively inhibit the growth of a wide range of Gram-positive bacteria [193,194].

Enzymatic preservatives involve the use of naturally occurring enzymes to degrade or modify components within the food that spoilage organisms would otherwise utilize [195]. Enzymes such as lysozyme, lactoperoxidase, and glucose oxidase are commonly used. Lysozyme, found in egg whites and certain animal tissues, hydrolyzes the cell walls of bacteria, leading to cell lysis [196]. The lactoperoxidase system, which includes lactoperoxidase, hydrogen peroxide, and thiocyanate, generates antimicrobial compounds that inhibit bacterial growth [197]. Glucose oxidase catalyzes the oxidation of glucose to gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, both of which have antimicrobial properties [198].

Microbial and enzymatic preservatives have been successfully applied across various food systems, demonstrating their effectiveness in enhancing food safety and extending shelf life. In dairy products, microbial preservatives such as nisin and pediocin are used to control the growth of spoilage bacteria and pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes [199]. For example, nisin is commonly added to processed cheese, fermented dairy products, and other cheese products to prevent spoilage and extend shelf life [200,201]. The lactoperoxidase system is used in raw milk preservation, especially in regions where refrigeration is limited, as it effectively reduces the growth of spoilage microorganisms and pathogens, maintaining the quality and safety of milk during storage and transport [202,203].

In meat and poultry products, microbial preservatives such as LAB are employed in fermentation processes to produce fermented sausages and other cured meats [204,205,206]. The production of lactic acid and other antimicrobial compounds by LAB during fermentation inhibits spoilage organisms and pathogens, resulting in safer and longer-lasting products. Nisin and pediocin are also used in ready-to-eat meats to control the growth of Listeria and other harmful bacteria [207].

Enzymatic preservatives like lysozyme are utilized in various food applications [208]. Lysozyme is used in the preservation of cheese, where it prevents the growth of Clostridium tyrobutyricum, which can cause late blowing and spoilage in cheese [209]. It is also used in wine production to control lactic acid bacteria and prevent malolactic fermentation in certain wine styles. The lactoperoxidase system has applications beyond dairy [210], including in the preservation of fruits [211], seafood [212], fish [213,214], and meat products [156,215]. The system’s antimicrobial action helps maintain the quality and safety of these perishable products during storage [216]. In the beverage industry, enzymes like glucose oxidase are used to prevent microbial spoilage and oxidative deterioration in fruit juices and wines [217,218]. The production of gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide by glucose oxidase inhibits the growth of spoilage microorganisms and enhances the stability and shelf life of these beverages [219]. In bakery products, microbial preservatives such as propionic bacteria, which produce propionic acid, are used to inhibit mold growth and extend the shelf life of bread and baked goods [220,221]. Enzymes like amylases and proteases are also used to improve the texture and shelf life of bakery products by modifying starch and protein components [222].

Overall, microbial and enzymatic preservatives offer natural and effective solutions for food preservation, aligning with consumer preferences for clean label and minimally processed foods. Their diverse mechanisms of action and wide range of applications make them versatile tools in enhancing food safety, quality, and shelf life across various food systems. However, the effectiveness of these preservatives can be influenced by factors such as food composition, processing conditions, and storage environments, necessitating ongoing research and optimization to maximize their potential benefits.

4. Advanced Packaging Solutions

Advanced packaging solutions are critical for enhancing the performance, efficiency, and functionality of electronic devices. These solutions encompass a variety of techniques and materials aimed at improving interconnect density, electrical performance, and thermal management. This synthesis explores the key insights from recent research on advanced packaging technologies.

Table 3. Summary of advanced packaging solutions.

Packaging Type	Material	Mechanism	Applications	Advantages	Challenges
Eco-friendly Packaging	Biodegradable plastics, compostable materials, edible films.	Decomposes naturally, provides a barrier to moisture, oxygen, and microbes.	Fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy, bakery.	Reduces environmental impact, uses renewable resources.	Higher cost, may require specific conditions for decomposition.
Smart Packaging	Time-temperature indicators, freshness sensors, antimicrobial films.	Monitors food quality in real-time, extends shelf life, improves safety.	All types of perishable foods.	Enhances consumer safety, reduces waste, improves inventory management.	Cost, regulatory approvals, consumer acceptance.

summarizes some advances in the field.

4.1. Eco-Friendly Packaging

Eco-friendly packaging solutions have gained significant attention in the food industry as a means of reducing environmental impact while maintaining the functionality required to protect and preserve food [223]. Sustainable packaging materials include biodegradable plastics [224], compostable materials [225], edible films [226], and packaging derived from renewable resources [227]. Biodegradable plastics are designed to break down into natural substances such as water, carbon dioxide, and biomass through the action of microorganisms [228]. Common biodegradable plastics include polylactic acid (PLA) [229], polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) [230], and starch-based plastics [231]. PLA is derived from renewable resources like corn starch or sugarcane, while PHAs are produced by the bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids.

Compostable materials, a subset of biodegradable plastics, are specifically designed to decompose under composting conditions, resulting in nutrient-rich compost. These materials must meet specific standards, such as the ASTM D6400 [232] in the United States, to ensure they break down completely and safely within a designated time frame [233,234]. Some polymeric materials labeled as “100% degradable” do not decompose effectively under real composting conditions, despite claims, highlighting a discrepancy between laboratory and real-world conditions [235]. The end product of composting, humus, contains valuable macro, micro, and trace elements beneficial for soil and vegetation, though compost quality can be affected by the initial chemical composition of the waste and the conditions maintained during composting [236]. In conclusion, composting is a complex process driven by microbial activity, with aerobic conditions being more efficient than anaerobic ones. The C/N ratio, aeration, and moisture levels are critical factors influencing the decomposition process, and while various composting methods offer specific benefits, the effectiveness of compostable materials, particularly polymeric ones, can vary significantly between laboratory and real-world conditions [237]. The final compost product is nutrient-rich and beneficial for soil health, provided the composting process is well-managed.

Edible films and coatings, made from natural polymers like proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids, are applied directly to food products to enhance shelf life and reduce packaging waste [238]. Examples include films made from gelatin [239], chitosan [240], alginate [241], and whey protein [242]. These films can provide barriers to moisture [243], oxygen [244], and microbial contamination [245] while being entirely edible and biodegradable. One notable advance is the incorporation of natural antioxidants into edible packaging materials. These innovative films significantly improve food preservation by reducing oxidation and microbial growth, thereby enhancing the shelf life and safety of food product [246]. Another significant development is the utilization of nanotechnology in food preservation and packaging. Nanomaterials offer superior barrier properties and antimicrobial effects, which can be integrated into various packaging formats to extend the shelf life of fresh produce and other food items [8].

Packaging derived from renewable resources includes plant materials, such as paper, cardboard, and bioplastics. These materials are often more sustainable than conventional plastics derived from fossil fuels. Innovations in this area include the use of agricultural by-products like rice husks [247], wheat straw [248], and banana leaves [249] to create packaging materials.

Eco-friendly packaging offers numerous environmental benefits, contributing to the reduction in plastic pollution and the conservation of resources. By utilizing biodegradable and compostable materials, the environmental footprint of packaging can be significantly reduced. These materials break down into non-toxic components that can be absorbed into natural ecosystems, reducing the accumulation of persistent plastic waste in landfills and oceans [250]. Sustainable packaging also often involves using renewable resources, which can help decrease reliance on fossil fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with the production of conventional plastics [251]. Additionally, many eco-friendly packaging materials can be recycled or composted, promoting a circular economy where resources are reused and waste is minimized [252]. The use of biodegradable plastics, such as those derived from polylactic acid (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), provides a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics, reducing the impact on the environment [253].

Efforts to develop eco-friendly packaging materials extend to using natural fibers and bioplastics, which minimize environmental impact and offer functional benefits for food preservation and safety [254]. These advancements highlight the importance of integrating sustainable practices into packaging design and production, ultimately contributing to a more sustainable future [255]. However, the implementation of eco-friendly packaging also presents several challenges. One significant limitation is the cost of sustainable materials, which can be higher than conventional plastics. This cost difference can be a barrier for widespread adoption, particularly for small and medium-sized food producers [250]. Additionally, the performance of biodegradable and compostable materials may not always match that of conventional plastics, particularly in terms of barrier properties, durability, and shelf life [256].

Another challenge is the infrastructure to properly dispose of and process biodegradable and compostable materials. For these materials to decompose effectively, they often require specific conditions found in industrial composting facilities, which may not be widely available. This can lead to situations where compostable packaging ends up in landfills, where it may not break down as intended [257] There are also challenges related to consumer awareness and behavior. Educating consumers about properly disposing eco-friendly packaging is crucial to ensure that these materials are effectively recycled or composted. The mismanagement of these materials can negate their environmental benefits and contaminate recycling streams [258].

Integrating eco-friendly packaging into the supply chain also faces practical difficulties [259]. Small and medium-sized enterprises often struggle with higher costs and the lack of suitable infrastructure to manage the new materials [260]. Additionally, performance issues such as the durability and barrier properties of biodegradable materials compared to traditional plastics present significant hurdles [261]. While eco-friendly packaging solutions are essential for sustainable development, they require substantial adjustments in production processes, infrastructure, and consumer behavior. Addressing these challenges is crucial for achieving the environmental benefits promised by these innovative materials.

4.2. Smart Packaging

Smart packaging technologies, including time–temperature indicators and freshness sensors, are also gaining traction. These innovations provide real-time food quality monitoring, helping maintain food safety and reduce waste [262]. Intelligent packaging systems that monitor environmental conditions and food quality can signal when food is no longer safe to consume, ensuring consumer safety and minimizing food waste [263].

The latest advances in intelligent and active packaging technologies, such as antimicrobial films and oxygen scavengers, are designed to actively interact with food to extend shelf life and improve safety [264]. Additionally, multilayer packaging techniques, which combine different materials to provide enhanced barrier properties and mechanical strength, are ensuring better food preservation [265].

Advances in barrier coatings and film technologies are essential for maintaining food quality by preventing gas exchange and moisture ingress [266]. Furthermore, biodegradable materials for active packaging offer sustainable alternatives to traditional plastics while maintaining effectiveness in food preservation [267]. Edible packaging solutions, which can be consumed along with the food, reduce packaging waste and offer a sustainable packaging solution [268] Halloysite nanotubes in packaging materials enhance mechanical strength and provide antimicrobial properties, thus improving food safety and shelf life [269]. The continuous development and adoption of such advanced packaging technologies are crucial for the future of sustainable food preservation. These innovations extend the shelf life and maintain the quality of food and address the environmental impact of packaging waste.

The advancements in packaging solutions play a crucial role in ensuring food products’ safety, quality, and sustainability. Integrating natural antioxidants, nanotechnology, intelligent monitoring systems, and biodegradable materials are vital trends driving innovation in this field. As the food industry continues to evolve, these advanced packaging solutions will be essential in meeting the demands for high-quality, safe, and environmentally friendly food products.

5. Use of Nanoparticles in Sustainable Food Preservation

The integration of nanotechnology in food preservation offers innovative solutions that not only enhance food safety and quality but also contribute to the sustainability of food processing. Nanoparticles (NPs) are increasingly recognized for their potential to reduce environmental impacts associated with traditional preservation methods, minimize food waste, and support the transition to more sustainable food systems. This review explores how the use of nanoparticles in food preservation aligns with sustainability goals, highlighting their unique properties, mechanisms of action, and the environmental benefits and challenges associated with their use.

5.1. Role of Nanoparticles in Enhancing Sustainability

Nanoparticles, due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio and enhanced reactivity, provide efficient alternatives to conventional preservation techniques that often rely on high energy inputs or chemical additives. The application of nanoparticles in food preservation encompasses several sustainable practices, including reducing resource consumption, minimizing the use of synthetic chemicals, and extending the shelf life of food products, thereby reducing food waste. Figure 3 summarizes the effects of nanoparticles on food preservation.

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used in food preservation for their strong antimicrobial properties against a broad spectrum of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. By incorporating AgNPs into packaging materials, it is possible to inhibit microbial growth on food surfaces, which helps in prolonging shelf life and reducing the need for synthetic chemical preservatives that can have adverse environmental effects [270]. This aligns with sustainability objectives by decreasing the environmental footprint associated with chemical production and disposal.

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) offer additional benefits in sustainable food preservation due to their UV-blocking properties and ability to provide antimicrobial protection. ZnO NPs are effective in packaging applications, where they help prevent spoilage and maintain food quality by shielding food products from harmful UV radiation, thus reducing the degradation of nutrients and sensory qualities [271]. This not only enhances food preservation but also reduces energy consumption associated with refrigeration and other preservation methods.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) are used in food packaging due to their photocatalytic properties, which enable them to degrade organic contaminants and inhibit microbial growth under UV light exposure. This self-cleaning ability of TiO₂ NPs in packaging materials can further reduce the need for chemical cleaning agents and preservatives, supporting a cleaner and more sustainable food processing environment [272]. The use of TiO₂ NPs aligns with circular economy principles by promoting materials that actively contribute to product longevity and safety.

Chitosan nanoparticles, derived from renewable resources like shellfish shells, exemplify the intersection of nanotechnology and biobased materials in sustainable food preservation. Chitosan NPs possess natural antimicrobial properties and can form biodegradable films and coatings that serve as barriers to moisture and gases. These films help preserve food by preventing microbial contamination and reducing spoilage without relying on synthetic polymers or chemical additives [273]. The biodegradable nature of chitosan NPs reduces plastic waste and environmental pollution, contributing to more sustainable packaging solutions.

Lipid-based nanoparticles, such as nanoemulsions and liposomes, are used to encapsulate natural preservatives like essential oils and antioxidants. These nanoparticles enhance the stability and controlled release of active compounds, offering targeted antimicrobial effects and protecting food from oxidation. By improving the efficacy of natural preservatives, lipid-based nanoparticles reduce the need for synthetic additives, supporting the demand for cleaner labels and more natural food products [274].

5.2. Environmental Benefits of Nanoparticles in Food Preservation

The use of nanoparticles in food preservation offers several environmental benefits that align with the principles of sustainable food processing. Nanoparticles enhance the efficiency of preservation methods, reducing the reliance on energy-intensive processes like thermal pasteurization and refrigeration. By providing antimicrobial and antioxidant protection at lower concentrations and with targeted action, nanoparticles help minimize the overall resource consumption of preservation processes.

Nanoparticles also contribute to reducing food waste, a significant issue in global food systems. By extending the shelf life of perishable items, nanoparticles can reduce the frequency of food spoilage, thereby decreasing the volume of food that ends up in landfills. This reduction in food waste not only conserves the resources invested in food production but also mitigates the greenhouse gas emissions associated with waste decomposition, particularly methane.

Moreover, the incorporation of biodegradable nanoparticles like chitosan into packaging materials helps address the environmental impact of plastic pollution. As conventional plastic packaging contributes to long-term environmental degradation, the use of biodegradable alternatives aligns with sustainability goals by promoting materials that break down more readily in the environment, reducing waste accumulation and its associated ecological impacts.

5.3. Challenges and Considerations

While the use of nanoparticles in food preservation offers numerous sustainability benefits, several challenges must be addressed to fully realize their potential. One major concern is the safety and regulatory oversight of nanoparticles in food applications. The potential toxicity of nanoparticles to human health and the environment needs comprehensive evaluation, and the current regulatory frameworks are still evolving to keep pace with advancements in nanotechnology [272]. Ensuring that nanoparticles are safe for consumers and ecosystems is critical to their sustainable use.

Another challenge is the scalability and cost of nanoparticle production and integration into food preservation systems. While nanoparticles offer enhanced functionality, their production can be resource intensive, and scaling up for industrial applications remains a hurdle. Innovations in green synthesis methods and more efficient production techniques are needed to make nanoparticles a viable option for widespread use in sustainable food preservation.

Consumer acceptance is also a key factor in the adoption of nanotechnology in food. There is often a lack of awareness or understanding of nanotechnology among consumers, which can lead to hesitancy or rejection of products that incorporate nanoparticles. Transparent communication about the benefits and safety of nanoparticles, along with clear labeling, can help build consumer trust and support the broader adoption of nanotechnology in food preservation.

5.4. Future Directions

The future of nanoparticles in sustainable food preservation lies in advancing their safety, efficacy, and environmental compatibility. The research into green synthesis methods that use less toxic and more sustainable raw materials can reduce the environmental impact of nanoparticle production. Additionally, the development of multifunctional nanoparticles that combine antimicrobial, antioxidant, and barrier properties can enhance the sustainability profile of food preservation technologies.

Strengthening regulatory frameworks and establishing clear guidelines for the safe use of nanoparticles in food applications will be crucial in ensuring that these innovations contribute positively to sustainable food systems. Collaboration between industry, academia, and regulatory bodies can accelerate the development and deployment of safe and effective nanoparticle-based preservation solutions.

In conclusion, nanoparticles represent a promising frontier in sustainable food preservation, offering solutions that reduce environmental impact, extend shelf life, and support the transition to more sustainable food systems. By addressing current challenges and optimizing the use of nanoparticles, the food industry can leverage nanotechnology to enhance sustainability and meet the growing demand for safer, longer-lasting, and more environmentally friendly food products.

6. Environmental Footprint of Different Preservation Methods

Evaluating the environmental impact of food preservation techniques involves assessing various sustainability metrics, including energy consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water usage, waste generation, and the use of non-renewable resources. By analyzing these factors, we can determine the overall environmental footprint of different preservation methods and identify areas for improvement.

Table 4. Summary of environmental footprint of preservation methods.

Metric	Traditional Methods	Innovative Methods	Environmental Impact
Energy Consumption	High (autoclave pasteurization, hot air drying).	Lower (HPP, PEF, MAP, UV, Pulsed Light).	Reduced energy demand, lower CO2 emissions, higher energy efficiency.
GHG Emissions	Significant (thermal processes, canning).	Reduced (HPP, PEF, ohmic heating, cold plasma).	Decreased GHG emissions, potential further reduction with renewable energy.
Water Usage	High (autoclave pasteurization).	Lower (HPP, MAP, ultrasounds, PEFs).	Reduced water consumption, more sustainable for short shelf life products.
Waste Generation	High (traditional packaging, lack of optimization).	Reduced (food waste biorefineries, optimized preservation investment).	Lower waste generation, recycling and energy recovery potential.

presents a summary of the environmental footprint of preservation methods.

6.1. Energy Consumption in Food Preservation

Traditional food preservation methods, such as autoclave pasteurization and hot air drying, are known for their high energy consumption and significant environmental impact. In contrast, innovative technologies like high-pressure processing (HPP), microwaves, ohmic heating, and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) have been developed to address these issues. Figure 4 presents a comparative diagram regarding energy consumption.

Implementing pulsed electric fields (PEFs) and high-pressure processing (HPP) for food preservation offers significant benefits over traditional thermal pasteurization, particularly in maintaining food quality and extending shelf life [275]. However, in a cost analysis performed by Sampedro et al., these novel methods present higher operational costs and environmental impacts. HPP, for example, has a total electricity consumption of up to 1,000,000 kWh per year, significantly more than the 38,100 kWh for thermal pasteurization, resulting in pasteurization costs that are seven times higher [276]. Despite these challenges, the consumer demand for fresher, more nutritious food drives the adoption of PEF and HPP, with potential cost reductions achievable through increased production outputs and technological advancements.

A comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of the thermal and non-thermal techniques, including autoclave pasteurization, microwaves, HPP, and MAP, revealed that emerging technologies generally have lower energy demands and CO₂ emissions compared to conventional methods [277]. New meat preservation methods, such as ultrasounds, pulsating electric and magnetic fields, pulsed light, and cold plasma, have been shown to be more environmentally friendly. Compared to traditional techniques, these methods consume less energy and water and generate less waste. They also extend shelf life and ensure food safety without chemical additives [278]. Innovative technologies like HPP, microwave, and ohmic heating have demonstrated significant reductions in energy consumption and GHG emissions when compared to conventional heating methods. For instance, ohmic heating was found to be the most energy efficient, followed by HPP at high fill-ratios. The energy performance of these technologies improves with equipment scale, particularly for microwave and high-pressure systems [3]. Novel food preservation technologies, including advanced thermal and non-thermal methods, offer improvements in energy efficiency and reduced environmental impact. These technologies are cleaner and more efficient, providing high-quality food products with lower energy consumption and emissions [279]. Alternative technologies such as HPP, membrane filtration (MF), pulsed electric fields (PEFs), and ultraviolet radiation (UV) have been evaluated for their energy consumption. MF and UV were found to consume less specific energy compared to high-temperature short-time (HTST) processing, PEFs, and HPP. This indicates potential for energy savings and environmental benefits [280].

In the context of grain preservation, alternative methods like airtight preservation, acid preservation, and grain crimping have shown significant energy savings compared to hot air drying. Among these, grain crimping exhibited the lowest energy consumption, although the choice of additive and storage system can influence the overall energy use [281]. A study on refrigeration facilities for preserving agri-food products proposed a system combining step cooling with an inflow cooler. This system, which utilizes artificial cold during colder periods, achieved a 27% reduction in annual electric energy consumption, highlighting the potential for energy efficiency improvements in refrigeration [282].

In conclusion, innovative food preservation technologies offer substantial benefits in terms of energy efficiency and environmental impact compared to traditional methods. Techniques such as HPP, MAP, ohmic heating, and advanced refrigeration systems not only reduce energy consumption but also lower GHG emissions and water usage. These advances are crucial for developing sustainable food preservation practices that meet the growing demands for food safety and quality.

6.2. Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions in Food Preservation

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are a critical factor in evaluating the environmental impact of food preservation methods. Traditional preservation techniques, such as thermal pasteurization and canning, typically involve significant GHG emissions due to high energy consumption from fossil fuels used for heating and cooling processes. For instance, conventional thermal pasteurization contributes to substantial carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions due to the energy-intensive nature of maintaining elevated temperatures for extended periods. Recent studies have explored various innovative food preservation technologies that aim to reduce the energy consumption and corresponding GHG emissions while maintaining food quality and safety.

A study by Sampedro et al. (2014) highlighted that high-pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric fields (PEFs) result in higher initial CO₂ emissions compared to traditional thermal pasteurization. HPP, for instance, produces up to 773,000 kg of CO₂ annually, compared to 90,000 kg for thermal processing. However, the long-term benefits may offset these initial emissions when considering the extended shelf life and reduced food spoilage and waste [276].

A study by Atuonwu and co-workers compared the energy performance and GHG emissions of high-pressure processing, microwave, ohmic, and conventional heating technologies for orange juice pasteurization. The findings indicate that innovative technologies, particularly ohmic heating, are more energy efficient and produce fewer emissions compared to conventional methods. The study emphasized the potential for further improvements with decarbonizing the electricity grid [3]. A review on climate-conscious food preserving technologies for food waste prevention discusses the role of intelligent packaging biosensors and natural antimicrobial agents in reducing food waste and GHG emissions. It highlights the use of natural antimicrobial agents in active packaging systems and the potential of biopolymer-based nanocomposites and biosensors in ensuring food safety and quality. The review also examined initiatives in the UAE to combat food waste, indirectly contributing to reducing GHG emissions [283]. The life cycle assessment of food preservation technologies uses life cycle assessment (LCA) to evaluate the environmental impacts of traditional and novel food preservation technologies. It finds that non-thermal techniques like modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) have lower energy demands and CO₂ emissions than conventional thermal processes. MAP is identified as the most sustainable option for short-shelf-life products [277]. Research on a plant leaf mimetic membrane with controllable gas permeation for the efficient preservation of perishable products introduces a biomimetic strategy for food preservation using PLLA or chitosan porous microspheres in a shellac membrane to regulate gas permeability. The method shows exceptional preservation performance and can potentially reduce food waste and associated GHG emissions by extending the shelf life of perishable products [284]. Lastly, a review explores the integration of solar technologies with greenhouse dryers (GHDs) for drying agricultural products. It discusses the use of photovoltaic (PV), photovoltaic–thermal (PVT), and solar thermal collectors to improve the thermal performance of GHDs. The study highlighted the potential of solar-assisted greenhouse dryers (SGHDs) to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and lower GHG emissions [285]. Gaseous chlorine dioxide shows promise in preserving fresh food and low-moisture foods, but large-scale generation and environmental concerns require further study for its safe and effective use in the food industry [286].

In conclusion, innovative food preservation technologies show promise in reducing GHG emissions compared to traditional methods. The adoption of these technologies, along with the decarbonization of energy sources, can significantly mitigate the environmental impact of food preservation.

6.3. Water Usage

Water usage is a significant concern in food preservation, and various preservation methods have different environmental footprints, particularly regarding water consumption. Traditional food preservation methods, such as autoclave pasteurization, generally have higher water requirements than novel technologies. For instance, a life cycle assessment (LCA) study comparing thermal and non-thermal techniques found that non-thermal technologies like high hydrostatic pressure (HPP) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) require significantly less water. This makes them more sustainable options, especially when a shelf life of less than 30 days is needed [277].

Table 5. Water usage of various food preservation methods.

Preservation Method	Water Usage (L/Year)	Ref.
High-Pressure Processing (HPP)	Reuses water; minimal net usage, estimated around 10,000–50,000 L per year due to recycling capabilities	[287]
Pulsed Electric Fields (PEFs)	15,000–30,000 L per year; primarily used for cleaning and setup processes	[276]
Thermal Pasteurization	80,000–100,000 L per year; significant usage for heating and cooling cycles
Microwave	5000–10,000 L per year; primarily for cleaning and minimal processing needs
Ohmic Heating	7000–12,000 L per year; lower overall water consumption due to the efficiency of direct heating
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)	Minimal water usage; mostly used for packaging sanitation, estimated under 5000 L per year

presents a summary of water usage from different technologies.

Emerging food preservation technologies are designed to be more energy efficient and environmentally friendly. These technologies, including HPP, ultrasounds, and pulsed electric fields, not only extend the shelf life of food products but also reduce water usage and waste generation. For example, HPP and MAP have been highlighted for their lower water requirements than traditional thermal processes. The environmental impact of these novel technologies is generally lower than that of traditional methods. They are locally clean processes, meaning they produce fewer emissions and require less water and energy. This reduced environmental footprint makes them attractive alternatives for food processors aiming to produce high-quality products while minimizing environmental impact [111].

High hydrostatic pressure (HPP) uses high pressure to inactivate microbes and enzymes, requiring less water than thermal methods. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), by altering the atmosphere around the food, extends shelf life with minimal water usage, making it the most sustainable option for short-term preservation. Ultrasounds and pulsed electric fields are effective in preserving meat products and other foods without the need for large quantities of water [278]. The WATER indicator in the Italian “VIVA” certification framework provides more precise recommendations for optimal water use in the vineyard phase, while the Life Cycle Assessment highlights the impact hotspots related to both the direct and indirect use of water resources [288].

In conclusion, novel food preservation technologies offer significant advantages over traditional methods in terms of water usage and overall environmental impact. These technologies not only meet consumer demands for high-quality, safe food products but also contribute to more sustainable food processing practices.

6.4. Waste Generation

Waste generation is a significant factor when evaluating the environmental footprint of food preservation methods. Different preservation techniques can lead to varying amounts of waste, affecting their overall ecological impact. Food waste is a major global issue, with one-third of all produced food being wasted. This waste contributes significantly to the depletion of natural resources and air quality deterioration. Effective waste management systems, such as food waste biorefineries, can convert waste into valuable products like biofuels and chemicals, reducing the carbon footprint and environmental burden [289].

Investment in preservation technology within supply chains can significantly reduce waste. For instance, a study showed that optimizing preservation investment reduced the total deteriorated products from 235 units to 8 units, demonstrating a substantial decrease in solid waste generation. This lowers the environmental impact and brings economic benefits by reducing the supply chain costs [290]. Different food waste management strategies have varying effects on greenhouse gas emissions. For example, landfill is the least preferred option due to its high emissions, while anaerobic digestion and incineration with energy recovery are more favorable. These methods can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, especially for energy-rich food products like bread [291].

Transportation from collection points to disposal sites also contributes to the environmental footprint. In the case of municipal solid waste management, the ecological footprint of transportation is a critical factor. Upgraded waste management plans that optimize transportation can save significant environmental footprints, thereby enhancing the overall sustainability of the waste management system [292]. Different solid waste treatment techniques have varying carbon footprints. For instance, anaerobic digestion combined with recycling has the lowest carbon footprint, while incineration has the highest. This highlights the importance of selecting appropriate waste treatment methods to minimize environmental impact. Additionally, integrating anaerobic digestion with recycling can lead to significant energy recovery and reduced net CO₂ emissions [293].

In conclusion, waste generation is crucial in assessing food preservation methods’ environmental impact. Effective waste management strategies, investment in preservation technologies, and the selection of appropriate waste treatment techniques can significantly reduce the environmental footprint and contribute to a more sustainable food system.

6.5. Techno-Economic Analysis of High-Pressure Processing (HPP) in Food Preservation

6.5.1. Economic Analysis of HPP-Capital Investment

The capital investment required for HPP equipment is one of the most significant economic considerations. The cost of an HPP system can range from USD 500,000 to over USD 4 million, depending on the size, capacity, and level of automation [294]. Larger systems designed for industrial-scale operations can process thousands of kilograms of food per hour, offering economies of scale that help offset the high initial investment. Key components of the investment include the pressure vessel, pumps, control systems, and ancillary equipment such as loading and unloading systems. The high capital cost is often a barrier for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), although leasing options and shared processing facilities are becoming increasingly available to lower the entry barrier for smaller producers

6.5.2. Operating Costs

Operating costs for HPP include energy consumption, maintenance, labor, water, and packaging materials. Energy costs are relatively low compared to thermal processing methods because HPP primarily relies on pressure rather than heat, resulting in lower overall energy requirements. The energy consumption for HPP is typically around 0.1 to 0.5 kWh per kilogram of product, depending on the process parameters such as pressure level and hold time. Maintenance costs, however, can be substantial due to the wear and tear on high-pressure components, particularly the pressure vessel and pumps. Regular maintenance and part replacements are necessary to ensure system reliability and safety, contributing to ongoing operational expenses [295].

Labor costs are influenced by the level of automation in the HPP system. Highly automated systems require less manual intervention, reducing labor costs but increasing capital investment. Conversely, semi-automated systems may have lower upfront costs but require more labor to operate. The choice between automation levels depends on the production scale and the specific needs of the producer. Water costs are another consideration, as HPP uses water as the pressure-transmitting medium. Water recycling systems can help reduce water usage and costs, contributing to the sustainability of the process [296].

6.5.3. Return on Investment (ROI)

The return on investment for HPP is influenced by several factors, including the scale of operation, product value, shelf life extension, and market demand for high-quality, minimally processed foods. HPP allows producers to market premium products that command higher prices, which can accelerate ROI. For example, cold-pressed juices treated with HPP can sell at a premium compared to thermally processed juices due to their superior taste, nutritional content, and clean label appeal. Extended shelf life also reduces product losses due to spoilage, further enhancing profitability. For large-scale operations, the ROI for HPP equipment can be realized within 3 to 5 years, depending on production volumes and market conditions. Smaller operations may experience longer payback periods, particularly if capital costs are high relative to production capacity.

6.5.4. Market Opportunities and Challenges

The market for HPP-treated products is growing rapidly, driven by consumer demand for fresh, natural, and minimally processed foods. HPP aligns well with clean label trends, as it eliminates the need for chemical preservatives while delivering safe, high-quality products. This has led to increased adoption of HPP across various sectors, including juices, ready-to-eat meals, meats, and seafood. The technology is particularly appealing in the premium food segment, where consumers are willing to pay more for products that offer enhanced quality and safety. Additionally, the growing focus on food safety and the reduction in foodborne illnesses provide further opportunities for HPP, as it is highly effective in inactivating pathogens without altering food quality [297].

Despite its advantages, HPP faces several challenges that can impact its economic feasibility. The high initial capital cost remains a significant barrier, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises. Although the technology offers operational efficiencies, the need for regular maintenance and potential downtime due to equipment failures can add to the overall cost of ownership. Moreover, not all food products are suitable for HPP. The process is most effective for products that can be packaged in flexible containers, such as plastic pouches or bottles, as rigid containers may not withstand the high pressure. This limitation restricts the range of applications for HPP, particularly for products that are traditionally packaged in glass or metal containers.

Another challenge is consumer perception and awareness. While HPP is well-known in certain markets, broader consumer education is needed to highlight its benefits over conventional preservation methods. There is also a need for ongoing research to optimize HPP conditions for various food matrices, as the effectiveness of the process can vary depending on the type and composition of the food.

6.5.5. Environmental Impact and Sustainability

HPP is considered a sustainable preservation method due to its low energy consumption and minimal use of chemical preservatives. By extending the shelf life of food products, HPP contributes to the reduction in food waste, aligning with global sustainability goals. Additionally, advancements in water recycling systems have made HPP more environmentally friendly, reducing the overall water footprint of the process. Compared to traditional thermal processing, HPP offers a greener alternative with a lower carbon footprint, making it an attractive option for environmentally conscious producers and consumers [298].

High-pressure processing (HPP) represents a powerful tool in sustainable food preservation, offering significant advantages in terms of product quality, safety, and shelf life extension. The techno-economic analysis of HPP reveals that while the initial capital investment is high, the long-term economic benefits, including reduced spoilage, premium product positioning, and operational efficiencies, can provide a favorable return on investment. The technology aligns well with current market trends towards clean label and minimally processed foods, positioning it as a key player in the future of food preservation. However, overcoming the challenges of high costs, equipment maintenance, and limited consumer awareness will be essential to fully realizing the potential of HPP in the food industry. As advancements continue and market acceptance grows, HPP is poised to become an increasingly integral part of sustainable food processing.

7. Application of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) in Food Preservation

7.1. LCA Methodology

Life cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method used to assess the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product’s life, from raw material extraction through production, use, and disposal. By evaluating critical factors such as energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, water usage, and waste generation across all stages of a product’s life cycle, LCA provides valuable insights into the sustainability of different preservation methods [1] (García-Díez et al., 2021). This section details the LCA methodology, key algorithm parameters, and illustrative elements used to evaluate innovative food preservation techniques, thereby addressing the need for a more comprehensive description and visual representation.

The LCA applied to food preservation focuses on the direct environmental impacts associated with various food preservation methods. This assessment utilizes software tools such as SimaPro 9.5 and GaBi 10, drawing on data inputs including energy consumption, water usage, greenhouse gas emissions, and waste generation from both primary measurements and established databases like Ecoinvent [3,299] (Atuonwu et al., 2018).

7.1.1. Goal and Scope Definition

The goal and scope definition phase outlines the objectives of the LCA, which include evaluating the environmental performance of food preservation technologies. The functional unit—defined as the preservation of one kilogram of food over a specified shelf life—serves as a consistent basis for comparing different methods [2] (Rahman, 2020).

7.1.2. Inventory Analysis

A comprehensive life cycle inventory (LCI) compiles all inputs and outputs associated with each preservation method. This inventory forms the foundation of the impact assessment, incorporating data from direct measurements and secondary sources [4] (Ucar et al., 2021).

7.1.3. Impact Assessment

The impact assessment phase quantifies environmental impacts using metrics such as global warming potential, eutrophication, and resource depletion. Tools like ReCiPe 2016 and TRACI are employed to calculate these impacts, providing a detailed evaluation of the sustainability of each preservation method [9] (Sainz-García et al., 2023).

7.1.4. Interpretation

In the interpretation phase, the results of the impact assessment are analyzed to identify environmental hotspots and develop actionable recommendations. Sensitivity analyses are conducted to test the robustness of the results against variations in assumptions and data uncertainties [10] (Harikrishna et al., 2023).

7.2. Key Algorithm Parameters

The LCA relies on specific parameters to quantify environmental impacts, including the following:

• Energy consumption which is measured in kilowatt hours (kWh), this parameter captures the total energy required, encompassing both operational and auxiliary needs [3] (Atuonwu et al., 2018).
• Greenhouse gas emissions expressed in kilograms of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂-eq), this metric evaluates the global warming potential associated with each preservation method [4] (Ucar et al., 2021).
• Water usage measured in cubic meters (m³), this parameter reflects the total water consumed throughout the life cycle of the preservation technology [2] (Rahman, 2020).
• Waste generation including both solid waste and emissions, quantified to assess the pollution potential of each method [1] (García-Díez et al., 2021).

7.3. LCA Results and Recommendations

The LCA results highlight the environmental advantages of innovative preservation methods such as high-pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric fields (PEFs). These non-thermal technologies demonstrate significantly lower energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions compared to traditional thermal methods, making them more sustainable options for the food industry [4] (Ucar et al., 2021).

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Shifting to non-thermal methods like HPP and PEFs can substantially reduce environmental impacts while preserving food quality.

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Improving data collection and integrating real-world measurements into LCA models will enhance the reliability of impact assessments.

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Providing financial and technical assistance to small and medium-sized enterprises can facilitate the adoption of sustainable preservation technologies [1] (García-Díez et al., 2021).

7.4. Life Cycle Analysis of Case Studies

A comparative study evaluated the environmental impacts of both traditional and novel food preservation technologies using LCA methodology. The study included four techniques: autoclave pasteurization, microwaves, high hydrostatic pressure (HPP), and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP). The results indicated that emerging techniques, particularly non-thermal methods like MAP and HPP, showed reduced environmental impacts in terms of energy demand and CO₂ emissions compared to conventional pasteurization. Additionally, non-thermal technologies required less water, making them more sustainable options for food preservation, especially when a shelf life of less than 30 days is needed [277] Another study applied LCA to various food products and production systems, including tomato ketchup and white bread. The study found that the environmental impact of food products is significantly influenced by the production of agricultural inputs, industrial processing, and packaging. For instance, the packaging and processing stages were significant contributors to the total environmental impact of ketchup. The study also highlighted the need for improved data collection and modeling to reduce uncertainties in LCA results. Simplified methods combining sustainability principles with LCA were suggested to guide product development towards more sustainable options [300].

Recent advances in LCA methodologies have facilitated more reliable and comprehensive evaluations of the environmental impacts of food products. Agricultural production was identified as a hotspot in the life cycle of food products, and LCA was found to be instrumental in identifying more sustainable options. The integration of LCA with other approaches provides valuable information for policymakers, producers, and consumers in selecting sustainable products and production processes. However, further international standardization is needed to broaden the practical applications of LCA and improve food security while reducing human health risks [301].

The principles of LCA involve several standard phases, as follows: goal and scope definition, life cycle inventory, life cycle impact assessment, and interpretation. These phases help capture the global extent of inputs, outputs, and potential environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of food products. Collaboration across disciplines is essential to better capture the diversity of food systems and address underassessed foods. LCA studies have been expanding in scope and breadth, providing valuable insights into the environmental impacts of foods, diets, and food production systems [302].

A bibliometric review of LCA studies in South Korea over the past 20 years revealed that most studies focused on the construction and energy sectors, with fewer studies on agriculture and food systems. This indicates a need for increased and improved LCA-related research in sectors of growing economic relevance, such as agriculture and food production. The study emphasized the importance of LCA as an environmental impact assessment tool and called for more comprehensive coverage of major industries to identify potential environmental tradeoffs [303].

The application of LCA to food preservation methods and food products provides critical insights into their environmental impacts. Emerging non-thermal preservation technologies like MAP and HPP offer more sustainable options compared to traditional methods. However, there is a need for improved data collection, modeling, and international standardization to enhance the reliability and applicability of LCA. Increased research in underrepresented sectors, such as agriculture and food systems, is essential to develop more sustainable food production and preservation methods.

8. Global Market of Food Preservation

The global market for food preservation techniques is experiencing significant growth, driven by increasing consumer demand for safe, long-lasting, and minimally processed food products. Recent market research indicates that the food preservation market was valued at approximately USD 1200 billion in 2022 and is projected to reach USD 1700 billion by 2030. This growth is fueled by advancements in preservation technologies, the rising consumption of packaged and processed foods, and growing awareness about food safety and sustainability. Several factors contribute to this market expansion, including rising consumer demand for food products with longer shelf lives and enhanced safety, particularly in urban areas where busy lifestyles drive the need for convenient, preserved foods. Consumers are increasingly seeking products free from artificial preservatives, which drives innovation in natural and sustainable preservation methods such as the use of plant-based preservatives and advanced packaging technologies [304].

Technological advances are a major driver of market growth, with innovations such as high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric fields (PEFs), and the incorporation of nanoparticles into active packaging revolutionizing food preservation. These technologies offer effective microbial control without compromising the nutritional and sensory qualities of food, making them attractive alternatives to traditional thermal methods. Additionally, there is a growing focus on reducing food waste, which is a critical component of global sustainability efforts. Governments and organizations worldwide are promoting food preservation as a key strategy to mitigate food waste, thereby aligning with broader environmental goals and reducing the overall environmental impact of food production [305].

The global food preservation market is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6.5% from 2023 to 2030, reflecting robust demand across various sectors, including beverages, dairy, meat, and seafood. This growth is further driven by the increasing adoption of natural preservatives and clean label products, which resonate with health-conscious consumers seeking minimally processed foods. Regionally, North America dominates the food preservation industry, particularly the United States, where high consumption of packaged foods and advanced food processing technologies are prevalent. Europe also represents a significant market due to stringent regulations on food safety and a strong preference for natural and sustainable preservation techniques. In the Asia Pacific region, rapid urbanization, rising disposable incomes, and a growing population are expected to drive the fastest market growth, as efficient food preservation methods become increasingly important to meet the demands of expanding urban centers [306].

Future trends in the food preservation market are expected to include the continued growth of natural preservatives as consumer preferences shift towards natural and organic options. The market for natural preservatives, such as plant extracts and essential oils, is anticipated to expand rapidly as these ingredients provide a safer alternative to synthetic additives. Moreover, sustainable packaging solutions, including biodegradable materials and active packaging enhanced with nanoparticles, are set to play a crucial role in the evolution of food preservation, aligning with consumer demand for environmentally friendly products. The integration of smart technologies, such as smart packaging and Internet of Things (IoT) applications that monitor and enhance food preservation, is another emerging trend likely to shape the market landscape in the coming years [307].

In conclusion, the global market for food preservation techniques is poised for significant growth in the coming years, driven by technological innovations and a strong consumer shift towards natural and sustainable options. With an expected CAGR of 6.5%, this market presents substantial opportunities for companies investing in advanced and eco-friendly preservation solutions, which not only enhance food quality and safety but also contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food system.

9. Adoption Barriers of Sustainable Food Preservation Technologies

9.1. Industry and SME Adoption

The widespread adoption of sustainable food preservation technologies in the food industry presents both challenges and opportunities. One of the primary challenges is the high cost of implementing new technologies. Advanced preservation methods, such as high-pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric fields (PEFs), require significant capital investment in specialized equipment. This can be a barrier for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which may lack the financial resources to invest in new technologies.

To address this challenge, one approach is the use of collaborative processing facilities, where multiple small companies share access to advanced preservation technologies through a cooperative or shared hub. This model allows SMEs to benefit from technologies like HPP without the prohibitive costs of purchasing the equipment outright, as they can pay per use according to a predetermined schedule. Such shared facilities have gained popularity in regions like the United States and Europe, where food producers can leverage state-of-the-art technologies to enhance product quality and safety without incurring significant upfront expenses.

Another viable option for small companies is to explore leasing and financing programs for equipment. Vendors and financial institutions often offer leases that reduce the need for substantial initial investments, allowing companies to adopt new technologies with manageable monthly payments. These leases can include vendor-financed options, equipment rentals, or government-supported loans that specifically target innovation and sustainability in food processing. For instance, some financing options allow businesses to gradually adopt the technology by scaling up from a pilot phase to full production, thus mitigating financial risks while testing market acceptance.

Incremental implementation is another effective strategy for SMEs. By initially adopting the technology on a smaller scale, such as piloting a single product line with HPP or cold plasma, companies can evaluate the effectiveness and market response before committing to a broader rollout. This step-by-step approach provides valuable insights into operational adjustments and helps build confidence in the new process, making it easier to justify the investment when expanding across other product lines.

Leveraging grants and incentives can further ease the financial burden of adopting innovative food preservation technologies. Many governments and non-governmental organizations offer grants and funding programs designed to support sustainable and innovative practices in the food industry. SMEs can access these resources to offset some of the costs associated with purchasing and implementing advanced equipment, making it more feasible to transition to greener and more efficient preservation methods.

9.2. Regulatory Framework

Another challenge is the need for regulatory approval and standardization [308]. Emerging preservation technologies must undergo rigorous testing and evaluation to meet safety and quality standards set by regulatory authorities. Establishing clear guidelines and protocols for the use of new technologies can streamline the approval process and build consumer trust. The adoption of innovative food preservation technologies such as cold plasma, high-pressure processing (HPP), pulsed light technology, and the use of natural preservatives is intricately shaped by regulatory requirements that vary significantly across different regions and markets. Regulatory bodies, including the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), and other national agencies, play a critical role in setting the standards and guidelines that dictate the safety, efficacy, and permissible uses of these technologies in food processing.

High-pressure processing (HPP), for example, has gained regulatory approval in many countries for applications such as pasteurizing juices, ready-to-eat meals, and deli meats. However, gaining approval is not a one-size-fits-all process; each market imposes its own specific requirements that often demand extensive validation studies to demonstrate microbial safety while preserving food quality. This process can be both time-consuming and costly, often requiring substantial evidence that the technology not only meets stringent safety standards but also does so without producing harmful by-products or altering the nutritional content of the food. For instance, in the United States, the FDA requires that HPP-treated foods undergo rigorous testing to ensure that pathogens are effectively inactivated at various pressure levels and time intervals. Similarly, the EFSA in Europe mandates comprehensive risk assessments and proof of efficacy before approving HPP for commercial use. These extensive regulatory hurdles ensure consumer safety but can also slow down the adoption of HPP in new markets, especially for smaller companies that may not have the resources to conduct such thorough testing.

Emerging technologies such as cold plasma and nanotechnology in food packaging face even greater regulatory scrutiny due to ongoing concerns about their long-term effects on human health and the environment. Cold plasma, which uses ionized gas to inactivate microorganisms on food surfaces, is still under evaluation in many regions for its safety and potential impact on food quality. Regulatory agencies require detailed studies that address not only the microbial efficacy but also potential chemical changes in the food, such as the formation of new compounds that could pose health risks. Nanotechnology, particularly in food packaging, must navigate a complex regulatory environment due to concerns about nanoparticle migration into food products. Regulators demand comprehensive evidence on the safety of nanoparticles, their potential toxicity, and the environmental implications of their use, which can significantly delay market entry.

Additionally, the use of natural preservatives, such as plant extracts and microbial agents, is subject to varied regulatory requirements depending on the region. In the European Union, for example, natural preservatives must be approved as food additives, and each substance requires a separate assessment of its safety, functionality, and potential allergenicity. This rigorous approval process is intended to protect consumers but can be a barrier to innovation, particularly when compared to regions with less stringent regulations.

The regulatory landscape is continuously evolving, with an increasing emphasis on sustainability and reducing environmental impacts. This shift is driven by global initiatives to combat climate change and reduce pollution, prompting regulators to incorporate sustainability criteria into their approval processes. For instance, regulations now often include guidelines on the use of eco-friendly materials, mandates to minimize carbon footprints, and requirements to ensure that technologies do not contribute to waste or pollution. For example, the European Green Deal has influenced food packaging regulations by encouraging the use of recyclable and biodegradable materials, while in the United States, the FDA has started to assess the environmental impacts of new food processing technologies as part of its review process.

Navigating this complex regulatory environment requires food producers to stay informed about the latest developments and be prepared to adapt their processes to comply with both existing and emerging regulations. Companies must be proactive in their approach, engaging with regulators early in the development of new technologies and being prepared to provide comprehensive data on safety, efficacy, and environmental impact. This proactive engagement can help expedite the approval process and ensure that innovative technologies meet the evolving demands of both regulators and consumers for safe, sustainable, and high-quality food products.

Moreover, the disparity in regulatory standards across different regions can pose challenges for companies looking to scale their innovations globally. What is permissible in one market might face significant regulatory barriers in another, necessitating tailored strategies for compliance. For instance, a food processor using HPP in the U.S. might need to adjust its protocols or undergo additional testing to meet the stricter requirements of European regulators. This variability underscores the importance of a comprehensive regulatory strategy that anticipates potential obstacles and leverages global best practices to achieve compliance.

In conclusion, while the regulatory framework governing innovative food preservation technologies is designed to protect consumer health and safety, it also presents significant challenges that can hinder the adoption of these technologies. By understanding and navigating these regulatory landscapes, food producers can more effectively bring their innovations to market, contributing to a safer, more sustainable food system.

9.3. Economic Barriers

The implementation of innovative food preservation technologies, such as high-pressure processing (HPP), cold plasma, pulsed light technology, and natural preservatives, is often hindered by significant economic barriers. These challenges can range from high initial capital investments to ongoing operational costs and the complexities of market acceptance, all of which can create substantial obstacles for food producers, particularly small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

One of the most significant economic barriers is the high capital investment required for the necessary equipment. Technologies like HPP involve purchasing specialized machinery that can cost between USD 500,000 and over USD 4 million, depending on the scale, capacity, and level of automation. This initial outlay is a major deterrent, especially for smaller companies with limited financial resources. The cost of HPP equipment is compounded by additional expenses for installation, training, and integration into existing production lines, which can further increase the financial burden. In contrast, traditional preservation methods, such as thermal pasteurization, often have lower initial costs, making them more attractive for companies with tight capital budgets.

Operational costs also pose a significant challenge. While HPP, cold plasma, and pulsed light technologies are often touted for their energy efficiency compared to traditional thermal methods, they still involve considerable ongoing expenses. The maintenance costs for HPP systems, for example, can be substantial due to the need for regular servicing of high-pressure components like vessels and pumps, which are subject to significant wear and tear. Additionally, the energy consumption associated with generating the high pressures or plasma needed for these technologies, although generally lower than thermal methods, still represents a notable operational cost, particularly if the technology is not fully optimized for energy efficiency. Labor costs can further add to the economic burden. Advanced preservation technologies often require skilled operators and specialized training, which can drive up labor expenses. Automation can help mitigate these costs, but highly automated systems themselves represent a higher upfront investment, creating a trade-off between initial and ongoing expenses. SMEs, in particular, may find it difficult to balance the cost of skilled labor or automation against the benefits of implementing these advanced preservation techniques.

Another economic barrier is the cost associated with regulatory compliance, which can be particularly burdensome for companies operating in multiple markets. As previously discussed, the regulatory landscape for these technologies is complex and varies widely between regions. Meeting the different regulatory requirements necessitates extensive validation studies, safety testing, and documentation, all of which require time and financial investment. The costs associated with gaining regulatory approval can be prohibitive, particularly for smaller companies that lack the resources to navigate these processes efficiently.

Additionally, the lack of widespread market acceptance and consumer understanding of these innovative technologies can impact the economic viability of their implementation. While there is a growing consumer demand for minimally processed, clean label foods, there remains some skepticism about the safety and efficacy of newer preservation methods, such as cold plasma or nanotechnology in packaging. This hesitancy can lead to slower market uptake, affecting the return on investment (ROI) for companies that adopt these technologies. Achieving market acceptance often requires additional investment in marketing and consumer education, further straining financial resources.

The economic risks associated with uncertain returns also play a significant role in the decision-making for companies considering these technologies. While advanced preservation methods can extend shelf life, improve food safety, and reduce waste, the initial costs and ongoing expenses create a financial risk if the expected market benefits do not materialize. Companies may struggle to achieve the anticipated price premiums for products preserved with these methods, especially in highly competitive markets where price sensitivity is high. This risk is compounded by the potential for technological obsolescence, as continuous advancements in preservation technology may render earlier investments outdated before they have fully paid off.

To mitigate these economic barriers, companies can explore several strategies. One approach is to seek financing options such as leasing or equipment rentals, which can spread the cost over time rather than requiring a large upfront payment. Government grants and incentives aimed at promoting innovation and sustainability in the food industry can also provide crucial financial support, particularly for SMEs. Additionally, collaborative approaches, such as shared processing facilities or co-investment models, can help reduce individual costs and make advanced technologies more accessible.

Another strategy involves incremental adoption, where companies start with pilot projects or limited-scale implementations to test the feasibility and market response before committing to a full-scale rollout. This approach allows businesses to manage risk and investment more effectively while building a case for broader adoption based on real-world results. Partnerships with technology providers, who may offer flexible payment plans or support with training and maintenance, can also help alleviate some of the financial pressures associated with adopting these advanced preservation methods.

While the economic barriers to implementing innovative food preservation technologies are substantial, they are not insurmountable. By leveraging financing options, exploring collaborative approaches, and strategically managing the adoption process, companies can overcome these challenges and unlock the benefits of these technologies. This, in turn, can lead to improved food quality, extended shelf life, and enhanced competitiveness in an increasingly demanding market landscape.

10. Future Directions and Innovations

10.1. Emerging Technologies

The future of sustainable food preservation lies in the development and implementation of innovative technologies that not only extend the shelf life of food but also enhance its safety, nutritional quality, and environmental sustainability. Among the emerging technologies are advancements in non-thermal preservation methods, intelligent packaging, and natural preservation techniques.

One promising area is the development of plasma-activated water (PAW). PAW is generated by exposing water to cold plasma, creating a liquid rich in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species [309]. These reactive species exhibit strong antimicrobial properties, making PAW an effective and environmentally friendly alternative to chemical disinfectants [310]. It can be used for washing and sanitizing fresh produce, meat, and seafood, reducing microbial contamination and extending shelf life without leaving harmful residues [311].

Another exciting development is the use of nanotechnology in food preservation [312,313]. Nanomaterials, such as silver nanoparticles and chitosan nanoparticles, have shown significant antimicrobial activity and can be incorporated into packaging materials to inhibit microbial growth [314]. Additionally, nano-encapsulation techniques can be used to deliver natural preservatives and antioxidants in a controlled manner, enhancing their effectiveness and stability [315,316].

Intelligent packaging is another emerging technology with great potential for sustainable food preservation [317]. These packaging systems can monitor and respond to changes in the food environment, providing real-time information about the quality and safety of the product [318]. For example, smart labels and sensors can detect spoilage indicators such as gas production or pH changes, alerting consumers and retailers to potential issues [263]. This can help reduce food waste by ensuring that products are consumed while still fresh and safe [319].

Edible coatings and films made from natural polymers like proteins, polysaccharides, and lipids are gaining traction as sustainable preservation solutions [244]. These coatings can be applied directly to food products, providing a barrier against moisture, oxygen, and microbial contamination while being entirely edible and biodegradable [320]. Advances in formulation and application techniques are enhancing the functionality and performance of these coatings, making them viable alternatives to traditional packaging [321].

10.2. Research Gaps

Despite the progress in developing sustainable food preservation technologies, several research gaps need to be addressed to optimize their effectiveness and facilitate their adoption. One critical area is understanding the long-term safety and efficacy of emerging technologies. For example, while nanomaterials show promise, their potential health impacts and environmental fate need thorough investigation. Rigorous safety assessments and regulatory guidelines are essential to ensure that these technologies are safe for consumers and the environment.

Another research gap is the need for more comprehensive studies on the synergistic effects of combining multiple preservation methods. While hurdle technology has demonstrated the benefits of using combined approaches, further research is needed to optimize these combinations for different food products and conditions. This includes understanding the interactions between various preservation techniques and their cumulative effects on food quality, safety, and shelf life.

Additionally, there is a need for more research on the consumer acceptance of new preservation technologies. Consumer perceptions and preferences play a significant role in the adoption of new food technologies. Studies exploring consumer attitudes towards emerging preservation methods, such as plasma-activated water and intelligent packaging, can provide valuable insights for developing products that meet market demands and regulatory standards.

11. Conclusions

In this review, we have explored a range of innovative and sustainable food preservation techniques, highlighting their mechanisms, applications, and impacts on food quality, safety, and shelf life. We began by discussing non-thermal methods such as cold plasma and pulsed light technology, which offer effective microbial inactivation while preserving the sensory and nutritional qualities of food. High-pressure processing (HPP) and pulsed electric fields (PEFs) were examined for their ability to extend shelf life and maintain food quality without significant heating, thus providing a balance between safety and product integrity. HPP, in particular, stands out as a leading technology that addresses economic viability, safety, and shelf life extension, making it a strong candidate for broad adoption in the food industry. Its effectiveness in inactivating pathogens without the use of chemicals aligns with consumer preferences for natural preservation methods, and its ability to significantly reduce spoilage can enhance supply chain efficiency.

We also explored the use of natural preservatives, including plant extracts and microbial and enzymatic agents, which provide safer and more natural alternatives to synthetic chemicals. These natural solutions contribute to the growing demand for clean label products and offer effective ways to maintain food safety and quality. The review then delved into advanced packaging solutions, including eco-friendly packaging materials and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), both of which play crucial roles in reducing food waste and maintaining product quality. The integration of nanoparticles into packaging materials was highlighted as a promising innovation that can enhance the antimicrobial and barrier properties of packaging, thereby extending the shelf life of food products in a sustainable manner. Hurdle technology was highlighted as an integrated approach that combines multiple preservation methods for enhanced efficacy, showcasing the potential of synergistic techniques in food preservation.

We also assessed the nutritional impacts of various preservation techniques and the importance of maintaining the nutritional quality of preserved foods. The environmental impact of food preservation was evaluated through sustainability metrics and life cycle analysis, providing insights into how different methods affect the environment and strategies for improvement. For instance, nanoparticles such as chitosan and TiO₂ were shown to support sustainability goals by reducing the need for synthetic chemicals and enhancing the shelf life of foods, which helps in minimizing food waste.

Finally, we addressed the critical role of preservation in reducing food waste and the potential global impact of effective preservation techniques. Emerging technologies, research gaps, and the challenges and opportunities for industry adoption were discussed, emphasizing the need for continued innovation and collaboration.

Sustainable food preservation methods are of paramount importance for the future of food security and environmental sustainability. As the global population continues to grow, the demand for safe, nutritious, and long-lasting food products will increase. Effective preservation techniques are essential for extending the shelf life of food, reducing spoilage, and minimizing food waste, thereby ensuring a stable and reliable food supply. Moreover, sustainable preservation methods help to mitigate the environmental impact associated with food production and waste. By reducing energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, and reliance on non-renewable resources, these methods contribute to a more sustainable and resilient food system. The adoption of innovative preservation technologies, such as HPP and nanoparticle-enhanced packaging, also supports the development of natural and minimally processed foods, meeting the growing consumer demand for healthier and more sustainable options. These technologies not only enhance food quality and safety but also offer economic benefits by reducing losses and improving supply chain efficiency. In this way, sustainable food preservation methods play a crucial role in promoting public health, economic stability, and environmental conservation, ultimately paving the way for a more sustainable future in food processing.

Call to Action:

To fully realize the potential of sustainable food preservation, continued research and innovation are essential. Researchers should focus on addressing the gaps identified in this review, such as the long-term safety and efficacy of emerging technologies, the optimization of combined preservation methods, and the development of cost-effective solutions. Collaboration between academia, industry, and government is crucial for advancing knowledge, facilitating technology transfer, and supporting the implementation of sustainable practices. Industry stakeholders are encouraged to invest in and adopt innovative preservation technologies, taking advantage of financial incentives and support programs where available. By integrating these technologies into their operations, food producers can enhance product quality, reduce waste, and meet consumer demand for sustainable products. Regulatory authorities should establish clear guidelines and protocols to ensure the safe and effective use of new preservation methods, fostering consumer trust and facilitating market adoption.

Finally, consumers play a vital role in driving the demand for sustainable food preservation. By choosing products that are preserved using environmentally friendly methods and supporting brands that prioritize sustainability, consumers can influence industry practices and contribute to a more sustainable food system.

In conclusion, sustainable food preservation is a critical component of the global effort to ensure food security, protect public health, and preserve the environment. Through continued research, innovation, and collaboration, we can develop and implement effective preservation techniques that enhance the quality and longevity of food products, reduce waste, and promote a more sustainable future.