Tourist eXperience Considering Cultural Factors: A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

This article examines Tourist eXperience (TX) and cultural factors from the perspective of Customer eXperience (CX). TX is understood to be the interactions with and responses of tourists to the products, systems, and services provided by organizations they engage with before, during, and after their trip, which significantly impact their experience and thus their satisfaction and loyalty. Considering cultural factors allows us to understand how the values and beliefs of tourists and their destinations relate to and affect TX. Based on this understanding, this research conducted an exhaustive review of the literature in the databases of Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct from 2012 to 2024, identifying 45 publications directly related to the following research questions: (1) What is TX? (2) What dimensions/attributes/factors influence TX? (3) What methods are used to evaluate TX? (4) How is culture analyzed in TX? We found a holistic definition of TX that corresponds to a subjective perception developed before, during, and after the trip, influenced by both the tourist’s culture and the destination. The most used evaluation methods for data collection were questionnaires/surveys and interviews. Additionally, it is important to understand the significance of culture in TX, as cultural clashes can generate both positive and negative perceptions in tourists.

1. Introduction

Tourist experience (TX) is a field of study that has captured the attention of researchers and professionals in the tourism sector due to its direct impact on customer satisfaction, loyalty through recommendations or return visits, and the sector’s importance to the economy [1]. Coupled with the increasing globalization of the world, it becomes highly relevant to investigate how cultural factors influence the tourist experience, as it is crucial for designing effective and culturally adaptive marketing and management strategies.

From the perspective of CX, TX encompasses a series of interactions that tourists have with destinations, services, and tourism products before, during, and after their trip. These interactions not only include direct elements such as the quality of services and infrastructure but also intangible elements like emotions, perceptions, and cultural expectations [2]. Therefore, studying cultural factors within TXs allows for a more holistic and accurate view of how different groups of tourists perceive and evaluate their experiences since these are subjective. Additionally, it is important to consider that cultural factors significantly influence tourists’ expectations and behaviors [3], as aspects like social norms, values, beliefs, and customs can greatly affect how tourists interact with tourism environments and evaluate their experiences.

The analysis of cultural factors in TX becomes particularly relevant due to the diversity of interactions that tourists have with different cultural environments, values, and beliefs during their travels. Culture not only influences tourists’ expectations and behaviors but also shapes the way they interpret and evaluate their experiences. In general, studies have shown that cultural diversity can lead to both positive and negative experiences for tourists, impacting their level of satisfaction and loyalty to the destination. Furthermore, research on culture has revealed that cultural clashes, although sometimes challenging, can enrich the tourist experience by fostering a greater understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. Therefore, studying how cultural factors combine with the customer experience allows for the development of more inclusive strategies that are tailored to the needs of different segments of tourists, promoting a more sustainable and culturally respectful form of tourism.

This systematic literature review aimed to identify and analyze the existing research on TX from a cultural perspective, with the purpose of answering the main question, which seeks to understand how cultural factors influence TX from the perspective of CX. The primary goals were to understand how TX is defined and from which perspectives, to identify the dimensions, attributes, and factors that were found to influence TX in the literature, to examine the methods used to evaluate TX, and to analyze how culture is considered in these studies on TX, whose objectives are directly related to the research questions. Jointly with this research, the aim was to better understand the interaction between cultural factors and TX, providing a solid theoretical foundation for future studies and offering practical recommendations for tourism professionals. Analyzing this sector from a cultural perspective can not only improve customer satisfaction but also promote more inclusive and culturally respectful tourism.

The purpose of this review was to analyze scientific studies conducted by scholars, which follow a more structured and rigorous methodological approach, in contrast to articles written by tourism professionals or journalists, which tend to be more subjective and less systematic. Academic studies provide greater depth in the analysis of TX by relying on empirical data, established theories, and statistical analyses. To gather related research, searches were conducted using the keywords “tourism experience”, “tourist experience”, “touristic experience”, and “culture” in the databases of Scopus, Web of Science, and Science Direct. Through a series of filters, 45 relevant studies were identified and selected for an in-depth review to answer the research questions.

This review is structured as follows: (1) the background information is provided, including literature-based definitions of the terms User Experience, Customer Experience, Tourist Experience, and culture. (2) The research methodology is outlined, including the research questions, literature search, and selection process. (3) The data synthesis is presented, including the characteristics of the studies. (4) The research questions are answered based on the identified and analyzed literature. (5) The key factors identified from the literature review are discussed. (6) The systematic literature review is concluded. (7) The references are listed.

This investigation provides significant value to the field of tourism by offering a comprehensive understanding of how cultural factors influence TX. Additionally, the holistic approach, which considers both the tourist’s culture and that of the destination, offers a solid theoretical foundation for future studies and promotes a more inclusive and culturally respectful form of tourism.

It is important to mention that, given the nature of this study on cultural topics, certain terms used by the cited researchers may be considered politically incorrect in specific contexts, such as in gender-related issues. However, while these expressions may not align with the current standards of political correctness in certain contexts, this does not invalidate the findings. Furthermore, it is essential to note that the use of these terms does not necessarily reflect the views of the authors of this article, as this research aimed to provide an objective analysis based on empirical data while respecting cultural and social diversity.

2. Background

The ensuing subsections contain definitions of the key terms that are essential for a comprehensive understanding of the research issue and the corresponding answers to the research questions.

2.1. User Experience (UX)

The definition from ISO 9241-210 standard states that UX refers to a person’s perceptions and responses that result from the use or anticipated use of a product, system, or service [4]. These user perceptions and responses can include emotions, beliefs, preferences, perceptions, comfort, behaviors, and achievements that can occur before, during, and after use. It also indicates that the user’s experience is a consequence of the brand image, presentation, functionality, performance, interactive behavior, and the capabilities of a system, product, or service. However, it also points out that user experiences result from the user’s internal and physical state, which can derive from previous experiences, attitudes, skills, abilities, personality, and usage context. Another definition of UX notes that it is an emergent and holistic phenomenon generated by the user’s interaction with various variables, including system design, user characteristics, and usage context. It also states that UX encompasses all user interactions with the organization across its touchpoints [5].

2.2. Customer Experience (CX)

Various authors have defined CX, and many of these definitions overlap in several aspects; however, there is no formalized definition. The various definitions of CX help establish guidelines for what it meant and how it should be approached. Based on this, some definitions of CX by various authors are provided below.

CX is defined as the physical and emotional experience of the customer at all levels of the consumption chain [6]. It is also defined as a set of feelings, perceptions, and attitudes formed throughout the decision-making process and consumption chain involving interactions with people, objects, processes, and the environment, leading to cognitive, emotional, sensory, and behavioral responses in the customer [7]. CX can also be described as a multidimensional structure composed of elemental components, where the customer can hardly recognize the type of structure, and organizations expect customers to perceive experiences as a complex yet unified feeling [8]. Another definition states that CX arises from interactions with a customer at specific stages in the customer journey and addresses the subjectivity of CXs, as experiences are mental responses specific to everyone [9]. Thus, CXs can be said to correspond to the methodology by which a company interacts with a customer at each point during their journey. Besides being a set of actions in which they engage, they also focus on feelings and are important to understand because customers want to feel connected to organizations, and incorporating CX into processes creates a key competitive differentiator [10].

In addition to defining CX, various dimensions have been identified as key components that make up CX. Pekovic et al. identified the following dimensions [11].

• Emotional: These are the affective and emotional reactions people have during interactions with the organization, where positive experiences can foster feelings of satisfaction and happiness in customers.
• Sensorial: These are all the stimuli that affect the customer, such as the visual environment, sounds, and smells, which contribute to and shape the customer’s perception of the experience.
• Cognitive: These are the mental processes developed by the customer, such as perception, interpretation, and memory, which affect how customers process information about the offered product, system, or service.
• Behavioral: These are the actions and behaviors of customers generated by the experiences, including the ease of use and accessibility of products, systems, or services.
• Social: This dimension can influence the customer’s sense of belonging and community, as it corresponds to the interactions and connections between customers and with employees.
• Technological: How the use of technology can improve the customer experience through applications, websites, and digital systems.

Understanding these dimensions is fundamental in CX, as addressing them directly impacts the overall perception and satisfaction of customers with the organization.

2.3. Tourist Experience (TX)

A general definition states that the tourist is the primary customer of tourism, defined as the activity undertaken by this actor involving a stay outside their usual environment for at least one night [12]. Tourism is a multifaceted activity that encompasses a range of concepts, elements, and stakeholders, making it challenging to define in a detailed and specific manner. However, the World Tourism Organization (WTO) has provided a widely accepted definition, which states that tourism involves the activities of individuals who are traveling and staying in places outside their usual environment for a period of less than one consecutive year, whether for leisure, business, or other reasons, not involving the undertaking of a remunerated activity in the visited location.

According to this definition, tourism implies physical displacement, specifically the travel to a destination outside an individual’s usual environment. It can be motivated by various factors, such as leisure, business, health, or cultural purposes, but it excludes permanent relocation or activities related to permanent residence and local employment. It is the temporary nature of this activity that distinguishes it from other forms of migration or travel. The specified duration of stay includes both short- and long-term vacations, business trips, educational experiences, and more.

One of the most important characteristics of tourism is that its scope covers not only the journey to the destination but also the activities undertaken during the process. This includes all existing services and products that meet tourists’ needs. Consequently, tourism is not limited to the destination but encompasses all the experiences tourists undergo, which may involve various industries.

The tourism system can be broken down into several fundamental components, which include

• Demand: This refers to the group of consumers or potential consumers of goods and services related to tourism. It includes tourists who travel for various reasons, and their needs shape the supply of the tourism industry.
• Supply: This encompasses the products, services, and organizations involved in creating the tourism experience. The supply in tourism includes hotels, restaurants, travel agencies, entertainment venues, and more.
• Geographical space: This is the physical place where the interaction between the supply and demand occurs, known as the tourist destination. It includes the local population, infrastructure, and natural or cultural attractions that draw tourists.
• Market operators: These are entities such as travel agencies, transportation companies, and public or private organizations that facilitate the relationship between supply and demand.

The tourism system is highly dynamic and composed of various interrelationships between the previously mentioned elements, which evolve according to changes in consumer behavior, technological advancements, and fluctuations in global economic conditions. Furthermore, tourism is deeply interconnected with other sectors of the economy, such as transportation, hospitality, and retail, making it a crucial component of global trade. Modern definitions consider both the supply and demand in this industry, recognizing the complexity of interactions between tourists, the places they visit, and the services they use [13].

As mentioned earlier, TX is analyzed from the perspective of CX (explained in Section 2.2), where certain authors have provided definitions that are not always directly related to CX and have been analyzed from various disciplines.

TX is described as the psychological phenomena generated individually by a tourist. Given that TX can have a multidimensional development, its research can have various objectives, such as understanding culture in tourism, host struggles, and the influence of structures, among others [14].

Another definition indicates that TX is the subjective evaluation of the individual and their experience, which can be assessed affectively, cognitively, and behaviorally, before, during, and after the trip [15]. It also explains how the tourist creates meaning from the experience, which can be interpreted in various ways according to the tourist’s personal process. Additionally, this experience is generated by the individual’s personal, social, and cultural meaning [16].

2.4. Culture

Culture corresponds to a way of life that is shared and/or learned by a group of people [17]. It is believed that culture is not innate to people but is cultivated as a collective phenomenon that encompasses not only mental characteristics but is also reflected and demonstrated in daily activities such as eating, expressing feelings, hygiene, and greetings, among others. While humans have certain intrinsic capacities (that are not a part of culture) such as fear, anger, love, joy, sadness, and shame, culture influences how these are expressed and managed [18].

Culture is also referred to as a complex concept to define, which can be learned at any time in life through socialization. However, it is important to note that culture is not the same as identity [19].

This subject has been examined from various perspectives, and according to the literature, it can be linked to psychological and informational factors. Individuals are understood as being shaped much like computer programs, with initial ‘programming’ beginning in the family and further shaped by influences from the neighborhood, school, friends, work, and, more broadly, the communities with which individuals interact throughout their lives [18].

Six dimensions of culture have been established.

• Individualism vs. Collectivism: The importance of individual interests compared to larger collective groups. This dimension evaluates the degree to which people feel integrated into groups.
• Power Distance: This dimension deals with the degree to which less powerful members of society accept and expect unequal power distribution. There are two types within this dimension: (1) high power distance, where societies have strict hierarchies and unequal power, and do not question superiors and (2) low power distance, where societies favor equality, decentralize power, have open communication, and less strict hierarchies.
• Motivation towards Achievement and Success: Involves the distribution of roles based on gender emotional segregation. Masculine societies focus on competition, achievement, material success, and generally have more traditional and differentiated gender roles. Feminine societies are more cooperative, modest, and have a high quality of life and concern for others.
• Uncertainty Avoidance: Corresponds to the degree to which people feel threatened within a culture by uncertainty and/or ambiguity. There are two cases within this dimension: (1) high uncertainty avoidance, where strict rules exist, and innovation can be viewed with suspicion and (2) low uncertainty avoidance, where societies tolerate change and ambiguity.
• Long-Term Orientation: Measures the importance a society places on traditional values and long-term planning. Long-term-oriented societies value perseverance, saving, and adaptation, while short-term-oriented societies value traditions, immediate gratification, and social stability.
• Indulgence vs. Restraint: Considers how society allows for the satisfaction of human desires. Indulgent societies are free to enjoy life and pleasure, while restrictive societies control needs and regulate human behavior.

3. Research Methods

The research collection method used is described below and is represented using the PRISMA methodology checklist [20] in Figure 1.

This literature review addressed the following topics: (1) definitions of TX; (2) identification of dimensions, attributes, and/or factors that influence TX; (3) the existing methods for evaluating TX; and (4) how cultural factors influence TX. These topics give rise to the research questions indicated in

Table 1. Research questions.

ID	Research Question (RQ)
RQ1	What is TX?
RQ2	What dimensions/attributes/factors influence TX?
RQ3	What methods are used to evaluate TX?
RQ4	How is culture analyzed in TX?

.

The studies were selected according to the following criteria: initially, publications from the last 12 years, from 2012 to 2024, were extracted to analyze the behavior of publications over the past decade, as shown in

Table 2. Number of publications per database.

Database	Number of Publications	% of All Studies
Web of Science	253	26%
Science Direct	131	14%
Scopus	579	60%
Total	963	100%

. The publications were sourced from the Web of Science, Science Direct, and Scopus databases, where those containing the following terms in their title, keywords, or abstract were selected:

• Tourism experience.
• Tourist experience.
• Touristic experience.
• Culture.

The number of results for each database is shown in Table 2.

Using this collected data, filters were applied to select publications related to tourism. This selection was based on the titles and abstracts, excluding those that address topics outside the scope of the current research and those that are overly specific, or focus on very particular locations. Based on these criteria, the resulting number of publications was as indicated in

Table 3. Number of publications per database (title and abstract filter applied).

Database	Number of Publications	% of All Studies
Web of Science	75	27%
Science Direct	71	26%
Scopus	131	47%
Total	277	100%

.

The 277 studies were reviewed, and only those with a direct relation to the research and that addressed at least one research question were selected, as shown in

Table 4. Number of publications per database that have a direct relation to the research questions.

Database	Number of Publications	% of All Studies
Web of Science	18	29%
Science Direct	17	27%
Scopus	27	44%
Total	62	100%

.

However, it is relevant to mention that out of the 18 publications from Web of Science, 17 were the same as those identified from Science Direct. Therefore, only 45 publications remained useful and directly related to TX in the context of culture. These were used to answer the research questions, but several of the 277 studies listed in Table 3 were also used to extract more general definitions or concepts that are not exclusively related to the research questions.

The selection criteria indicated in

Table 5. Inclusion and exclusion criteria for article selection.

Code	Category	Criteria
IN1	Inclusion	Articles published between 2012 and 2024.
IN2	Inclusion	Articles published related to the research questions.
IN3	Inclusion	Articles published containing the words “tourism experience”, “tourist experience”, “touristic experience”, and “culture” in their title, keywords, or abstract.
EX1	Exclusion	Articles published that are not related to the research questions.
EX2	Exclusion	Articles published that address a specific type of tourism and a highly specific location.
EX3	Exclusion	Articles published and duplicated in more than one database.

were used to select these 45 publications.

For the selection of publications in this research, specific inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to ensure the relevance and appropriateness of the studies collected. The inclusion criteria were designed to guarantee the review of recent and pertinent research: articles published between 2012 and 2024 (IN1) were included to cover the last decade of studies; additionally, the articles had to be directly related to the research questions (IN2), ensuring that the focus was aligned with the objectives of the study. Furthermore, articles containing key terms such as “tourism experience”, “tourist experience”, “touristic experience”, and “culture” in their title, keywords, or abstract (IN3) were selected to identify studies directly related to the core subject of the research.

On the other hand, the exclusion criteria were established to avoid irrelevant publications or those that would not significantly contribute to the findings. Articles not aligned with the research questions (EX1) were excluded to maintain the focus. Articles referring to extremely specific types of tourism and locations (EX2) were excluded, as they provided a level of detail tied to such particular context that it hindered their replicability in other settings. However, some case studies from specific countries were retained when we believed that the phenomena described could be extrapolated to other contexts. Finally, studies duplicated across multiple databases were removed (EX3) to avoid redundancy and ensure that only unique and original research was included.

This process is represented in Figure 1, which provides a summary of the search and selection process for the studies, according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria outlined in Table 5.

4. Data Synthesis

In the following section, some characteristics of the publications identified in the initial search in the repositories are presented.

These publication characteristics are categorized by (a) the number of publications per year, (b) the type of document, and (c) the percentage of duplicated articles.

It was found that, across all databases, the publications on TX considering culture were most concentrated between the years 2022 and 2024, as shown in Figure 2. Additionally, there was a sustained increase in the number of publications over the evaluated years in the Web of Science and Scopus databases. It is also relevant to mention that the publications from 2024 are incomplete, as the data was extracted in June 2024; but even so, in Science Direct, 2024 was the year with the highest number of publications.

Figure 3, Figure 4 and Figure 5 present the number of publications categorized by document type in each database. In all three information repositories, article-type publications showed the highest representation, significantly surpassing the other types of publications.

Finally, Figure 6 shows the number of studies that were selected for review in this analysis, that is, those that passed the series of filters and are listed in Table 4.

The publications found in Scopus were not duplicated in the other databases. Out of the 18 publications found in Web of Science, 17 were also in Science Direct, meaning that all the publications in Science Direct were duplicated.

5. Research Questions

5.1. What Is TX?

Various authors have approached TX from different perspectives. The following section groups the most relevant contributions from the literature, according to the previously mentioned inclusion and exclusion criteria and organized by how each study conceptualizes TX, to provide a comprehensive view of the concept.

On the analysis of tourists’ perceptions, Jensen et al. state that the tourist experience is complex, involving individual, social, and cultural factors that exist before, during, and after the tourist interacts with the tourism environment. They approach it from the perspective of cultural consumption theory and how this can contribute to creating new perspectives and entries for conceptualizing tourist experiences [16]. Libri et al. conducted a systematic review on the concept of heritage tourism, linking this type of tourism with culture and identifying themes that provide an opportunity to apply new strategies to enhance the tourist experience. They also highlighted the opportunity for field research to measure what is considered when choosing a tourist destination or when experiencing tourism [21]. On the other hand, Rusu et al. developed a scale to evaluate the tourist experience post-pandemic in Valparaíso, providing various definitions to describe what the tourist experience is; they mainly indicated that it can correspond to the positive or negative experiences tourists have before, during, and after the trip [22]. Li et al. referred to tourist satisfaction as like TX, which is understood as the perception tourists have of their environment and all the elements they interact with during the travel process, indicating that tourism is an experiential activity [23]. Rusu et al. point out that tourists are a type of customer related to tourism, using services, products, and systems related to this sector. They also studied TX as a particular case of CX, defining TX as multidimensional, built through touchpoints and it is personal to everyone [24].

Hermanto and Miftahuddin discussed the tourist experience in Indonesia, highlighting that the tourist experience is essential for city brand development. They noted that societies are increasingly moving towards an experience-oriented approach rather than focusing on the product itself. Regarding the tourist experience, they emphasized reviewing individual tourists’ experiences and that providers should focus on delivering memory-based experiences and offering quality services. They also mentioned that tourists value destination safety, fun, and the break from daily routines [25]. Hu et al. indicated that the tourist experience is related to the tranquility of the tourist destination [26]. Smith et al. investigated the cultural tourist experience in a specific sector, addressing it based on the activities the tourist undertakes, which can be direct, such as visiting cultural and heritage sites, or indirect, like the local culture, lifestyles, and everyday experiences [27]. Richards indicated that culture is one of the main factors in the tourist experience and has a direct relationship with tourism; it was also noted that tourism is an important source of income for cultural institutions [28]. Ghosh and Mandal studied the experience of medical tourism, calling it MTEX, where tourism is approached from a medical perspective, combining medical care with activities specific to the medical destination. They indicated that medical tourists seek not only better medical care but also engage in recreational activities during their stay [29]. Saayman et al. state that the experience is influenced by the quality of services the tourist receives and their prior expectations. Based on this, their research focused on tourist satisfaction and subjective wellbeing [30].

Cetin and Bilgihan indicated that tourists create their own experiences and can perceive them in various ways depending on their motivations. They mentioned that offering a positive and unique experience can be a differentiating element and create a commitment between tourists and the destination [31]. W. Kim et al. analyzed the tourist experience in terms of the destination’s personality and image and how they correspond to tourists’ perception and their intention to recommend or return to the tourism destination [32]. Risitano et al. addressed the tourist experience in the context of a mega sports event and how tourists’ perception and satisfaction varied according to their participation in the sports event and the experience at the destination. They also highlighted how the experiences of tourists attending sports events can vary significantly depending on their cultural background [33]. Melzer and Meyer-Cech analyzed rural tourism, approaching it as the experience tourists have based on their interaction with rural places and the services offered, valuing the perception of authenticity, hospitality, and organization. They also indicated that authentic experiences are relevant for creating a memorable and significant experience for tourists [34].

Lee and Smith approached the tourist experience as a psychological and subjective state arising from the emotions and perceptions resulting from interactions with the environment and activities at the tourist site [35]. Yu and Lee approached the tourist experience as a process involving intercultural interactions between tourists and residents, indicating that these interactions not only influence tourist satisfaction but also the perception of local culture [36]. Mehra treated the tourist experience as the emotions, feelings, and perceptions during all processes, focusing mainly on cultural shock and how cultural differences impact tourists’ experience and opinions afterward since word-of-mouth is one of the main recommendation methods [37]. Smelser and Baltes, based on two theories, indicated that the tourist experience is related to the search for authenticity and that the tourist experience is increasingly artificial with pseudo-events designed to meet tourists’ expectations [38].

Torres-Moraga et al. indicated that the tourist experience can positively influence the economic, cultural, and environmental aspects of the tourist destination; they found that the perceived destination experience is represented by the tourist’s sensory, intellectual, behavioral, and affective perceptions [39]. Leong et al. studied the influence of historical storytelling and its impact on cultural heritage tourists. They used tour guides as value creators for tourists, which positively influenced the educational, entertainment, experiential, and emotional values for the tourists [40]. Chang and Hung developed a scale to measure the tourist experience in cultural and creative industry parks. They indicated that experiences are the interpretations generated from the direct and indirect interactions tourists have with the parks’ services and facilities [41].

In addition, Kim et al. researched negative tourist experiences, based on the premise that travelers can have both positive and negative experiences during their journey, and found that tourists’ experiences are directly related to the destination’s attributes’ performance. They propose that tourism service managers should work together to create a healthy market [42].

From a more psychological perspective, Pung et al. investigated transformative tourism, describing it as a process where tourists experience significant changes in their values and behaviors based on interactions between their consciousness and the external environment, helping them integrate new knowledge, skills, and beliefs [43]. Zhu et al. addressed the experience in terms of stress management and coping strategies, finding that tourists experience stress from themselves, their travel companions, service providers, and the environment [44]. Altunel and Erkurt, in their research, offered a distinction between service quality and experience quality, with the former referring to the quality of service attributes under the provider’s control, while the latter are the psychological outcomes of tourism activities [45]. Teoh et al. conceptualized transformative tourist experiences, indicating that through the landscape, social dynamics, and properties of a place, psychological, physical, social, or knowledge changes can be generated in the tourist [46].

Other authors focused on memorable tourist experiences. Castellani et al. studied memorable tourist experiences, finding that the triggers for these experiences are related to social tourism enterprises, value proposition, constellation of values, and social and economic benefits [47]. Ariffin et al. also referred to memorable tourist experiences, indicating that it is a powerful and strategic tool that tourism operators should use to gain greater market share. They state that positive and negative experiences can affect the tourism industry, highlighting their findings that local culture is directly and significantly related to tourist satisfaction [48]. Wei et al. state that the tourist experience corresponds to a subjective mood that stems from the individual’s feelings and emotions after a trip. They indicated that memorable tourist experiences are determined by the individual’s psychological factors and that tourists can have similar experiences even in different tourist destinations [49]. Horváth investigated memorable tourist experiences and the perception of cultural value, indicating that the experience contains physical and mental elements, where activities are not only developed but stories are also created, and memories are made. They also noted that the experience includes gathering information about the destination to the memories after the trip [50].

J. Kim et al.’s research analyzed memorable tourist experiences, indicating that these are experiences tourists remember positively and have consequences such as the intention to revisit or recommend the place [51]. J. Kim developed a scale to measure the attributes of memorable tourist experiences, indicating that experiential factors for tourists can be positively influenced by three elements: (1) general elements of tourist activities experienced by tourists are better remembered than specific aspects; (2) tourists remember novel and/or distinctive experiences; and finally, (3) divergent effects manifest in experiences where tourists visited familiar destinations with strangers, exotic destinations where individuals traveled with family or friends, and destinations that have a mix of familiar and exotic elements, providing a variety of experiences [52]. Sterchele investigated memorable tourist experiences and their consequences, which can be interpreted as a chain of relationships linking pre-trip interactions, shared tourist experiences, post-trip memory exchange, and subsequent behaviors and choices [53].

The following authors analyzed cultural and gender differences, and their negative perceptions. Moufakkir studied the tourist experience based on the stigmas tourists have experienced related to their cultural and religious identity, specifically the reception, stereotypes, and discrimination they may face at the destination, and how this affects their perception and experience during the trip [54]. Brown and Osman studied the relationship between tourism and gender based on female tourists’ experiences in Egypt, an Islamic destination, addressing issues such as how women navigate local behavior norms and sexual harassment; they noted that women face challenges and need to apply coping strategies, such as modifying their clothing, conforming to local norms, vigilance, and avoiding unsafe places [55]. Qiu et al. addressed cross-cultural gender tourist behavior, indicating that tourists may experience carefreeness about self-representation at the destination, while others may carry their limitations to different contexts [56]. In Moufakkir’s research on Arab and Muslim women facing stigma, it was noted that they must employ strategies to preserve the symbolic function of their identity and self-esteem, and that the stigma depends on the hosts’ perspective in terms of racial views and ideological constructs [57].

Yang et al. focused on pollution, analyzing tourist experiences related to air pollution at the destination. They studied how tourists perceive air pollution and its impact on satisfaction, indicating that air pollution can harm the destination’s image by limiting outdoor activities and causing coughing, among other risks [58].

And finally, the following authors approached it from a technology perspective. Coves-Martínez et al. investigated the role of culture and the use of travel applications and how they influence tourist behavior and their experience. They also noted that technology directly influences the experience and depends on the culture, people, and resistance for the experience to be optimized through technology [59]. Casillo et al. developed a chatbot that supports tourism through a recommendation system, highlighting the importance of technology’s role in tourism. They indicated that this system supports the moments that generate the experience, which occurs during the search for the destination, when personalized and dynamic searches are created, and when comments about the experience are created. They also state that the tourist needs to have an active role in their experience [60].

According to the collected literature, authors have defined the tourist experience; however, they did this by focusing their research on specific topics and did not dedicate an entire study to defining this concept. They also acknowledged that culture plays a significant role in the experience process, but no study focused on defining TX holistically and considering cultural factors.

It was also found that a large part of the research specifically analyzed some type of tourism found in Section 2.3 [21,27,29,33,34,40,43,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53], and most were about memorable tourist experiences [47,48,49,50,51,52,53]. However, it is considered pertinent to analyze TX as it encompasses all types of experiences, not just positive ones.

Additionally, the importance of research analyzing TX holistically is detailed, as many of the analyzed studies were situated in a specific location and dealt with the experiences of that sector [22,24,25,27,34,45,47,48,55,57], but experiences can vary significantly from one place to another, and it is important to generate a definition that is transversal.

In terms of the definitions found, most generally referred to tourists’ perceptions to address the experience and its subjectivity, while some directly used a psychological perspective [43,44,45,46]. However, all the studies analyzed TX according to what the tourist feels in some way. The analysis of the experience was also sometimes found to be related to the tourist’s intention to recommend the destination [32,37,51], the authenticity of experiences that the tourist can have [33,34,38], and their well-being during their trip [29,30,49].

Cultural and gender differences were analyzed [54,55,56,57], with studies conducted in different cultural sectors and their relationships or differences regarding the experience during their travels were analyzed. However, some studies focused on negative experiences arising from cultural differences and/or gender [54,55,57]. In general, six studies were found that addressed the negative experiences of tourists [42,48,54,55,57,58]. In addition to those related to cultural and gender issues, another was focused on destination pollution [58], and another addressed positive and negative experiences [42].

Additionally, some studies considered the importance of incorporating technology into the tourism sector [59,60], and even developed systems that help improve TX [41].

Based on the above,

Table 6. Topics used to define TX.

Topic	Studies
Perceptions	[16,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42]
Psychological	[43,44,45,46]
Memorable tourist experiences	[47,48,49,50,51,52,53]
Cultural differences and gender	[54,55,56,57]
Contamination	[58]
Technology	[59,60]

provides an overview of the main topics covered by the research to define TX.

Therefore, from this, TX is defined as the subjective perception experienced by tourists during their trip, which can be dynamic, depending on the stage of the trip they are in, and it occurs before, during, and after their interaction with the destination. This experience encompasses the sensations and emotions generated by the tourist, which depend directly on the culture they come from and that of the tourist destination, as well as the interests and intentions with which the tourist undertakes the trip.

5.2. What Dimensions/Attributes/Factors Influence TX?

Scholars’ views on the dimensions, attributes, and factors that influence TX are heterogenous. In this section, we tried to group the studies mainly based on their topic of research. We then synthesized the recurring dimensions based on their frequency.

Jensen et al. indicated that the tourist experience is composed of individual, social, and cultural meanings [16]. According to a systematic literature review conducted by Libri et al. to investigate the concept of heritage tourism, they identified the following elements that could contribute to improving strategies in the tourist experience: authenticity, identity, tourist destination, motivation, and community [21]. Rusu et al. generated a scale that was applied as a survey in the city of Valparaíso, Chile, to evaluate the post-pandemic tourist experience. This scale was developed according to a literature review, where they found eight dimensions necessary to understand TX. These were emotion, local culture, place authenticity, entertainment, services, post-pandemic experience, loyalty, and overall perception [22].

Castellani et al. presented a series of dimensions and triggers for memorable tourist experiences created by memorable tourism companies, which were developed based on the literature they reviewed. The dimensions were hedonism, novelty, local culture, refreshment, meaning, knowledge, surprise, and service landscape. The triggers for memorable tourist experiences were value proposition, constellation of values, social benefit, and economic benefit [47]. Hermanto and Miftahuddin, according to their literature review, suggested a scale consisting of six fields: hedonism, novelty, refreshment, local culture, meaning, and participation [25]. Hu et al. developed two scales to evaluate tourists’ perception of tranquility for rural and desert places, identifying five dimensions: nature, culture, coherence, disturbance, and relaxation. These dimensions underwent validity and reliability tests, and it was demonstrated that scales containing these dimensions were statistically pertinent for evaluating tranquility in the tourist experience [26].

Smith et al., in their study on cultural tourism, defined the following dimensions: motivation, types of activities, sociodemographic characteristics, nature of the experience, and previous visits [27]. Ghosh and Mandal studied the medical tourism experience and defined seven dimensions: treatment quality, medical service quality, medical tourism expenses, medical tourism infrastructure, destination attractiveness, destination culture, and ease of access [29]. Wei et al. focused their research on analyzing the psychological factors affecting memorable tourist experiences using six factors (hedonism, novelty, participation, social interaction, serendipity, and meaningfulness) in two dimensions (memory and vividness) [49]. The authors Saayman et al. analyzed the impact of the tourist experience on tourist satisfaction and their sense of well-being, establishing six constructs: expectations, perceived performance, evaluated value, satisfaction, complaint intention, and loyalty [30].

Horváth did not define dimensions per se; however, the interview and questionnaire covered the following topics: Topic 1 corresponded to defining the framework, describing the phenomenon and its components, and its topics were tourists’ mental processes, physical challenges and sensory experience, complexity, surprise, and attitude and expectations. Topic 2 was about creating perceived value during the memorable tourist experience process, and its topics were utilitarian, contribution to building social capital, fortuitous moment, and self-discovery (spiritual and intellectual growth). Topic 3 corresponded to the perception of value co-creation in social networks, with the following topics: information, knowledge exchange as decision-making tools, network creation, trendsetting, peer group evaluation, intellectual processes, and expectation-based challenges [50].

The authors Cetin and Bilgihan investigated the components of cultural tourists’ experiences at destinations and defined the following dimensions: social interaction, local authentic cues, services, culture/heritage, and challenges [31]. W. Kim et al. analyzed three themes in their research: destination personality, destination image, and intention to recommend. For the first theme, they noted four dimensions: sincerity, excitement, comfort, and activity [32]. The authors Risitano et al. analyzed the influence of the national culture of tourists attending a mega sports event, using Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions (power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation) to evaluate the event experience, event satisfaction, and behavioral interactions [33]. Melzer and Meyer-Cech investigated the rural tourism experience and based on the case study analysis, they defined four quality components: hardware, environment/culture, software, and experience quality [34].

Lee and Smith developed a visitor experience scale, establishing seventeen items grouped into five dimensions: entertainment, cultural identity search, education, relationship development, and escapism [35]. J. Kim et al. found in their research seven relevant constructs in people’s tourist experience that likely affect their memory: hedonism, refreshment, local culture, meaning, knowledge, participation, and novelty [51]. Yu and Lee investigated the impact of tourists’ interculturality on their interactions, establishing five variables affecting interactions: trust, hospitality, language, equality, and ethnocentrism [36]. The authors Pung et al. found in their study on transformative tourism that there are contextual stimuli (liminality, cultural shock, and challenges), followed by a disorienting dilemma, peak episode, and physical performances. They also identified transformative processes: reflection, interpretation and memory, integration of values and/or knowledge, attitude change and habit acquisition, and finally, behavior change upon return [43].

Moufakkir studied Arab and Muslim tourists and their stigmatization; interviews were applied, and the following topics emerged: general sentiment, stigma awareness, stigma by association, and spoiled identity [54]. Torres-Moraga et al. investigated the experience and reliability of sustainable tourist destinations, finding that the perceived destination experience is composed of sensory, intellectual, behavioral, and affective aspects. However, they developed their theoretical model on a scale that evaluates cultural, environmental, and economic aspects [39]. Brown and Osman approached the tourist experience from a female perspective in an Islamic destination, identifying three topics that female tourists face when visiting these destinations: response to a dominant male presence at the destination, harassment by local men, and conformity to local cultural norms for women [55].

J. Kim developed a scale to measure the attributes of positive and negative memorable tourist experiences, from which, the following emerged: infrastructure, accessibility, local culture/history, physiography, activities and events, destination management, service quality, hospitality, place attachment, and superstructure [52]. The authors Coves-Martínez et al., in their research on travel application use according to culture, generated variables segregated into four blocks: (1) Individual beliefs (effort expectation, performance expectations, hedonic motivation, e-WOM, social interaction, application aesthetics, information quality); (2) contextual/technological attribute factors (personalization, relative advantage, privacy risk); (3) satisfaction (satisfaction with the travel application); and (4) continuous use (intention to continue using the application) [59]. Zhu et al., for their analysis of tourists’ stress and coping strategies, defined the following topics and subtopics: (1) stress related to service providers (scams, hospitality, attractions, and destination); (2) stress related to travelers (physical health and mental health); (3) stress related to travel companions (canceled trips, conflicts, obligations, accommodations, and family issues); and (4) stress related to the environment (weather and transportation) [44].

Chang and Hung generated a theoretical and empirical conceptualization of cultural and creative tourism in an experience scale for cultural and creative industry parks, which contains the following dimensions: learning, recreation, exhibition, service, food, facilities, and souvenirs [41]. Altunel and Erkurt, in their research on tourist experience and satisfaction regarding participation and intention to recommend, analyzed four effects: experience quality, participation, satisfaction, and intention to recommend [45]. Teoh et al. conducted a systematic review to conceptualize transformative tourist experiences, defining three dimensions: experience, experience consumer, and experience facilitator; the first dimension focuses on the place’s characteristics, the second on cognition and emotion, and the third on experience providers and their facilitators [46]. The authors Casillo et al. developed a chatbot that helps improve the tourist experience and gave a questionnaire to people who had previously used the system, asking about recommendations, conversations, presentation, usability, and future developments [60].

The dimensions identified in the investigations can be grouped and synthesized according to the main topic of the research, as shown in the following table.

The dimensions were applied in different types of tourism and situations according to the research topic chosen by the authors, where some were based on previously created dimensions, such as those by J. Kim et al., which include the following dimensions: hedonism, refreshment, local culture, meaning, knowledge, participation, and novelty [51].

Table 7. Dimensions of TX according to the research topic.

Research Topic	Dimensions	Study
Tourist Experience (1)	Individual, social, and cultural meanings	[16]
Heritage Tourism	Authenticity, identity, tourist destination, motivation, and community	[21]
Post-Pandemic Tourist Experience	Emotion, local culture, place authenticity, entertainment, services, post-pandemic experience, loyalty, and overall perception	[22]
Brand Tourist Experience	Hedonism, novelty, refreshment, local culture, meaning, and participation	[25]
Perception of Tranquility	Nature, culture, coherence, disturbance, and relaxation	[26]
Cultural Tourism	Motivation, types of activities, sociodemographic characteristics, nature of experience, and previous visits	[27]
Medical Tourism	Treatment quality, medical service quality, medical tourism expenses, medical tourism infrastructure, destination attractiveness, destination culture, and ease of access	[29]
Tourist Satisfaction and Well-Being	Expectations, perceived performance, evaluated value, satisfaction, complaint intention, and loyalty	[30]
Cultural Tourists in Destinations	Social interaction, local authentic cues, services, culture/heritage, and challenges	[31]
Destination Personality, Image, and Recommendations	Sincerity, excitement, comfort, and activity	[32]
Sports Tourism	Power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, event satisfaction, and behavioral interactions	[33]
Cultural Tourism	Hardware, environment/culture, software, and experience quality	[34]
Visitor Experience	Entertainment, cultural identity search, education, relationship development, and escapism	[35]
Intercultural Interactions	Trust, hospitality, language, equality, and ethnocentrism	[36]
Sustainable Tourist Destinations	Cultural, environmental, and economic	[39]
Cultural and Creative Tourism in Parks	Learning, recreation, exhibition, service, food, facilities, and souvenirs	[41]
Transformative Tourism	Contextual stimuli (liminality, cultural shock, challenges, disorienting dilemma, peak episode, and physical performances) and transformative processes (reflection, interpretation and memory, integration of values and/or knowledge, attitude change and habit acquisition, and behavior change upon return)	[43]
Tourist Stress	Service provider-related stress (scams, hospitality, attractions, and destination), traveler-related stress (physical health and mental health), travel companion-related stress (canceled trips, conflicts, obligations, accommodations, and family issues), and environment-related stress (weather and transportation)	[44]
Tourist Experience and Satisfaction	Experience quality, participation, satisfaction, and recommendation intention	[45]
Co-created Transformative Tourist Experiences	Experience (place characteristics), experience consumer (cognition and emotion), and experience facilitator (providers)	[46]
Memorable Tourist Experience	Hedonism, novelty, local culture, refreshment, meaning, knowledge, surprise, and service landscape	[47]
Memorable Tourist Experience and Psychological Factors	Hedonism, novelty, participation, social interaction, serendipity, and meaningfulness	[49]
Cultural Value Perception	Mental processes, physical challenges, sensory experience, complexity, surprise, attitude, expectations, perceived value, and perceived value of co-creation	[50]
Tourist Experience (2)	Hedonism, refreshment, local culture, meaning, knowledge, participation, and novelty	[51]
Positive and Negative Memorable Tourist Experiences	Infrastructure, accessibility, local culture/history, physiography, activities and events, destination management, service quality, hospitality, place attachment, and superstructure	[52]
Cultural Stigmatization	General sentiment, stigma awareness, stigma by association, and spoiled identity	[54]
Female Perspective in Islamic Destination	Response to a dominant male presence at the destination, harassment by local men, and conformity to local cultural norms for women	[55]
Travel Applications	Individual beliefs (effort expectation, performance expectations, hedonic motivation, e-WOM, social interaction, application aesthetics, and information quality), contextual/technological attribute factors (personalization, relative advantage, and privacy risk), satisfaction (satisfaction with the travel application), and continuous use (intention to continue using the application)	[59]
Chatbot in Tourism	Recommendation, conversation, presentation, usability, and future developments	[60]

contains the dimensions created for the research topic at a segregated level;

Table 8. Specific dimensions used in research.

Specific Dimension	Studies
Culture	[16,22,25,26,29,31,34,35,39,43,47,51,52,55]
Services	[22,29,31,41,44,52]
Hedonism	[25,47,49,51,59]
Quality	[29,34,45,52,59]
Destination	[21,29,44,52]
Novelty	[25,47,49,51]
Meaning	[16,25,47,49,51]
Participation	[45,47,49,51]
Interactions	[31,33,49,59]
Satisfaction	[30,33,45,59]
Identity	[21,35,54]
Motivation	[21,35,59]
Emotion	[22,32,46]
Knowledge	[43,47,51]
Activities	[27,32,52]
Hospitality	[36,44,52]
Refreshment	[25,43,51]
Expectations	[30,50,59]
Authenticity	[21,22]
Entertainment	[22,35]
Loyalty	[22,30,34]
Infrastructure	[29,52]
Challenges	[31,43]
Environment	[34,39]
Accessibility	[29,52]
Events	[33,52]

presents the main dimensions found and the investigations that incorporated them.

Since this research is focused on cultural topics and the collected studies were selected based on this criterion in the searches, the dimensions related to culture were the most common in the studies. Following this were services, which were addressed from the perspective of the services tourists interact with, which can be related to service providers and their quality. According to the dimensions of J. Kim et al., the studies that used and adapted these dimensions were on hedonism (five studies), refreshment (three studies), local culture (five studies), meaning (four studies), knowledge (three studies), participation (four studies), and novelty (various studies).

5.3. What Methods Are Used to Evaluate TX?

The studies that employed only questionnaires/surveys include the work by Rusu et al., who created a scale to evaluate the post-pandemic tourist experience (TX) in Valparaíso. The development of the scale followed these steps: (1) a preliminary version of the scale was developed based on the literature and reviewed by two experts to improve it according to their observations; (2) the scale was subsequently evaluated by 30 experts, academics, and tourism students to refine it based on their feedback; (3) a pilot test of the scale was conducted with 20 participants to evaluate its reliability; and (4) the scale was applied to 316 tourists and statistically validated. The scale was administered as a survey [22]. Li et al. developed a questionnaire to identify tourists’ feelings about digital heritage tourism. This questionnaire was created based on literature research that provided the following items: heritage tourism, authenticity, cultural experiences, and place attachment [23]. Smith et al. designed questionnaires to evaluate the changing nature of cultural tourists, with the main objective of collecting data on preferences and activities related to cultural tourism, covering topics such as activities undertaken, interaction with local culture, and motivations [27].

Wei et al. used questionnaires for their research, which contained questions about demographic information, and the second part was oriented towards their dimensions. It was later validated by experts, and a preliminary test was conducted before the official data collection. Once applied and the data were collected, confirmatory factor analysis and a general structural model were applied to verify the hypotheses [49]. W. Kim et al. developed and applied structural surveys based on structural equation modeling to analyze destination personality, destination image, and tourists’ intention to recommend. Statistical analyses were subsequently applied, and metric invariance tests were conducted to analyze the differences in the role of culture, gender, age, and previous experience [32]. Risitano et al. used structured surveys to evaluate the experience, satisfaction, and behavioral intentions of tourists attending a mega sports event. Additionally, a factor analysis and a variance analysis were applied to analyze the differences among the various cultural groups [33]. The research developed by Lee and Smith focused on a visitor experiential scale following these steps: (1) identifying the dimensions of the measured construct, (2) developing an initial set of items, (3) reviewing the initial set of items by experts, (4) determining the measurement format, (5) administering the questionnaire to develop the sample, (6) evaluating the items, (7) optimizing the scale length, (8) conducting exploratory factor analysis, and (9) verifying the scale through confirmatory factor analysis [35].

Torres-Moraga et al. conducted a survey based on questionnaires to evaluate tourist experiences and understand the perception of sustainability and reliability of a destination. The results were used to perform a confirmatory composite analysis through a partial least squares structural equation model to evaluate the measurement quality [39]. Qiu et al. designed a questionnaire with four parts: the first collected information related to the trip, such as destination name, travel date, length of stay, travel group size, travel company, and main activities. The second part measured concerns about personal presentation at the destination using the Public Self-Consciousness Scale and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. The third part measured the respondents’ concerns about their presentation in the domestic environment using the same scales mentioned. Lastly, demographic information and frequency of sharing destination experiences on social media were collected. ANOVA was applied to evaluate gender and cultural differences [56]. Coves-Martínez et al., in their research on travel application use, used a structural equation model to analyze the data collected from surveys on travel application experiences, and the results were validated using statistical software [59].

Leong et al., in their research on historical storytelling in creating value for cultural heritage tourists through interaction with tour guides and authentic sites, developed a questionnaire survey that asked about basic respondent information and about constructs related to the research topic, targeting tourists at Macau International Airport. The results were analyzed using partial least squares structural equation models [40]. The authors Altunel and Erkurt conducted surveys using a questionnaire to understand the mediating effect of experience quality and satisfaction on involvement and intention to recommend the place. The questionnaire had the following parts: (1) demographic information, (2) participation information, (3) experience quality, (4) satisfaction, and (5) intention to recommend [45].

The authors Casillo et al. developed a chatbot that provides recommendations on tourist routes and allows for interaction and understanding of humans through natural language processing and machine learning. To achieve this, they conducted experimental tests with people who used a prototype of the application and subsequently evaluated it with a questionnaire [60]. The authors Iraola et al. developed a technological solution using machine learning to improve the tourist experience, providing a recommendation system for tourist sites through a chatbot integrated into an Android mobile application that uses artificial intelligence. The users indicated that the application was easy to use and enhanced their tourist experience. Additionally, this research originated from a UX perspective [61].

Kim et al. developed a scale to measure memorable tourist experiences. This scale had 24 items and began with a literature review. Interviews were subsequently conducted to identify relevant themes, and then it was validated, and confirmatory factor analysis was applied to verify the scale structure [51].

Yu and Lee applied a systematic analysis of ethnographic interviews to study tourists’ experiences and perceptions of their interactions between tourists and residents [36]. Moufakkir used interviews with Arab and Muslim individuals to capture the essence of stigma and how it affects their tourist experience. Initially, it was examined how these tourists are stigmatized by their hosts, how this type of stigmatization emerges in the tourism world, and finally, how this stigma is linked to tourist encounters and its impact on the experience [54]. Brown and Osman, in their study on female tourist experiences in Egypt, conducted qualitative research focused on data collection, allowing participants to freely express their thoughts and feelings through semi-structured interviews. These addressed the following topics: date, frequency of visits to Egypt, places visited, participants’ views on traveling to a Muslim country, challenges faced when traveling as women, knowledge of the current political situation and its effects on their trip, influence of locals on their experience, general impressions, and willingness to return to Egypt in the future [55].

J. Kim developed a scale to measure the attributes of memorable tourist experiences. It began with a literature review and generating items, and a preliminary study was applied to develop the construct. Interviews were then conducted, refining and validating the scale based on the results. Finally, the official survey was administered after training a group of students to conduct the surveys and validate the construct [52]. Zhu et al. applied semi-structured interviews and participant observation in a theme park in China to analyze tourists’ stress and coping strategies. The participants were asked to describe their travel plans, city and theme park experiences, stress experienced, examples of coping with stress, and how coping with stress positively or negatively affected their experience [44]. Moufakkir applied interviews with Arab and Muslim women to capture their feelings, analyzing their experiences and stigma management. Open coding was subsequently used to analyze the data [57]. Chang and Hung established a scale to evaluate the tourist experience of cultural and creative industry parks through qualitative and quantitative research methods. They reviewed the existing literature to derive experiences of this type of tourist and develop related questions. Subsequently, exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis were conducted to refine and validate the measurement scale [41].

The authors that only used travel notes/online comments include Hu et al., who developed items based on the literature related to their research topic, which focused on tranquility in the tourist experience. Initially, they defined tranquility, characterized related studies, and identified interdisciplinary measurement methods that informed the development of the scale’s dimensions. Once the scale items were developed, experts evaluated their content validity, and the collected data were statistically analyzed [26]. Melzer and Meyer-Cech conducted a literature review to define quality concepts and components. Subsequently, they analyzed case studies on their research topic in a particular country [34]. Mehra applied aspect-based sentiment analysis and emotion analysis to evaluate tourists’ behavioral intentions. These methods were applied to user comments on the internet, and machine learning techniques were used to classify sentiments [37].

Pung et al. started with a literature review and applied a hermeneutic study to analyze experience narratives, understanding the meaning and comprehending the transformation phenomenon [43]. Yang et al. collected travel ratings from Chinese attractions and historical weather information for their research on air pollution and tourist experience, which they analyzed using a fixed effects econometric model that revealed the impact of air pollution [58]. Teoh et al. conducted a systematic literature review to generate a conceptual framework for transformative tourism experiences, where they analyzed several previous studies on this type of tourism in different tourism contexts [46].

Some authors used more than one data collection technique. Hermanto and Miftahuddin conducted a quantitative descriptive study to establish a precise and reliable tourist experience scale, which consisted of the following stages: (1) specifying the domain and relevant structures for the encounter; (2) generating two focus groups with participants from businesses, academics, and experts, as well as semi-structured interviews with visitors; (3) administering the first survey questionnaire; (4) refining and cleaning up the generated items; (5) administering a second survey questionnaire with additional structural designs; (6) conducting a robust evaluation of the variable used in the Rasch analysis; and finally, (7) establishing the final version of the tourist experience items [25]. Ghosh and Mandal developed a scale to evaluate the medical tourism experience. This scale was developed and subsequently validated by experts through focus groups, and qualitative and quantitative surveys, which finally helped to elaborate the dimensions and items, and validate the instrument [29].

Saayman et al. applied a structured survey at one of the largest and busiest airports in Africa. This survey contained three parts: the first part contained sociodemographic questions, the second part contained questions about the constructs, and the third part contained questions measuring travel outcomes [30]. Horváth applied an exploratory qualitative approach, using open questionnaires and focus group interviews with tourism students reflecting on the nature and formation process of memorable tourist experiences; the most relevant components and processes for these experiences were identified [50]. Cetin and Bilgihan used a qualitative methodology with semi-structured interviews of cultural tourists, including personal information questions (demographic), typographic questions (travel motivation), and later inquiries about their experiences during the trip [31]. Sterchele conducted ethnographic observations, semi-structured interviews, and secondary document analysis to analyze event tourism experiences and memories, and how these findings can generate translocal impacts and promote social change [53].

Although all the studies were focused on analyzing the tourist experience, some were specifically literature reviews, scale developments, and general studies, which includes literature reviews, evaluation methods, applications, and analyses.

The methods used by the researchers to evaluate TX are shown in

Table 9. TX evaluation methods.

Evaluation Method	Studies
Questionnaires/Surveys	[22,23,27,32,33,35,39,40,45,49,56,59,60,61]
Interviews	[36,41,44,51,52,54,55,57]
Travel Notes/Online Comments	[26,34,37,43,46,58]
More than one method	[25,29,30,31,50,53]

.

It was found that the studies used and implemented scales to collect information [22,25,26,29,32,35,40,41,49,51,52,57]. Additionally, among the studies that employed more than one data collection method, three implemented focus groups [25,29,50] and one utilized ethnographic observations [53].

It was found that most of the studies collected data through questionnaires/surveys in various groups and at different locations (depending on the focus of their research) and on diverse topics, as discussed in the second research question. Secondly, interviews were used as a data collection method; however, these were applied to a smaller number of participants (compared to questionnaires/surveys), as the time and availability required for interviews are more extensive.

5.4. How Is Culture Analyzed in TX?

Of the studies analyzed, the following studies were found to be oriented towards cultural and heritage tourism. Libri et al. studied heritage tourism from the perspective of cultural tourism, according to the definition provided by the United Nations World Tourism Organization, where tourism focuses on visiting places with high cultural value [21]. Smith et al. analyzed cultural tourism through questionnaires that measure how interested tourists are in engaging in cultural activities such as visiting heritage sites and museums, in relation to everyday culture and creative activities [27]. Cetin and Bilgihan specifically addressed cultural tourism and considered it a segment motivated by local and heritage culture over physical relaxation activities, where the main motivation is to learn about the place. They even defined one of their dimensions as culture/heritage, where respondents addressed topics such as heritage, art, history, entertainment, fashion, clothing, cultural events, architecture, and food [31].

Leong et al. focused on cultural heritage tourism, analyzing how the authenticity of a place and storytelling can provide a deeper historical and cultural context [40]. Chang and Hung developed a scale to evaluate the tourist experience in cultural and creative industry parks, which belongs to cultural and creative tourism, an extension of urban tourism according to the researchers. They also indicated that these parks promote interaction with local culture, leading to cultural learning and personal development [41]. Altunel and Erkurt considered the interaction with local culture, historical sites, and cultural activities as the main components for the cultural tourist experience, which vary according to tourists’ motivations that are influenced by these three factors: learning, enjoyment, and escape [45]. Casillo et al. provided a chatbot that offers cultural site recommendations based on user preferences, indicating that cultural tourism is advancing toward fully satisfying tourists’ needs [60].

Only three studies analyzed culture from Hofstede’s perspective, including the work of Risitano et al. They directly examined the national culture of tourists at a mega sports event, utilizing Hofstede’s dimensions of power distance, individualism/collectivism, motivation toward achievement and success, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation. Their findings indicated that cultural differences influence tourists’ perceptions and behavior [33]. Coves-Martínez et al., in their research on the use of technological applications, studied the role of culture from Hofstede’s perspectives, indicating that individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance are the dimensions that most influence technology acceptance [59]. Yang et al. addressed the tourist experience considering air pollution using two of Hofstede’s dimensions: masculinity versus femininity and individualism versus collectivism. They found that tourists most vulnerable to air pollution come from more feminine and collectivist cultures [58].

Several authors addressed culture from a conceptual perspective and studied its value in tourism. Jensen et al. state that culture is one of the main elements that creates meaning for tourists and their tourist experience, emphasizing the importance of studying cultural influences on the perception and evaluation of experiences [16]. Li et al. recognized a scarcity of research analyzing the cultural role of tourists; however, this research focused on understanding the effects of cultural experience, authenticity, and place attachment on tourist satisfaction and their intentions to preserve the site in heritage sectors [23]. Hu et al. defined five dimensions, one of which was culture. They analyzed it from perspective of the tranquility offered by cultural places such as buildings or cultural heritage sites, as well as other cultural elements like religion, food, singing, dancing, and clothing, which can be main attractions in peaceful sectors for developing tourism [26].

Richards analyzed the relationship between tourism and culture, noting that the tourism industry has been slow to adapt to cultural needs, neglecting museums, monuments, and festivals as the primary cultural attractions. On the other hand, cultural institutions, in their attempt to attract tourists, have started hiring marketing personnel. Lastly, he highlighted how cultural tourism is incorporating new technologies [28]. Ghosh and Mandal used culture as one of their dimensions in their analysis of the medical tourism experience. They also state that during their trip, tourists engage with local life, its history, and local culture, which are significant elements in destination satisfaction and loyalty [29]. Wei et al. found that, according to their dimensions, tourists can have variations in their memorable tourist experiences depending on the cultural context. They also analyzed culture in the relationship between tourists and the local culture of the destination and how social interactions can create memorable experiences. Since this research was conducted in China, it was noted that collectivism and interpersonal relationships were valued by both tourists and residents [49].

Saayman et al. addressed culture as the perception tourists have based on their diverse cultures, and their study found differences in tourist satisfaction and well-being according to their culture of origin [30]. Horváth analyzed the perception of cultural value in memorable tourist experiences in terms of how tourists relate to other tourists or residents of the destination. Tourist experiences are approached as an opportunity for personal growth and self-discovery, both spiritually and intellectually [50]. W. Kim et al. analyzed the role of culture in destination personality, destination image, and tourists’ intention to recommend a place in different demographic and cultural groups. They found that Eastern tourists valued emotion, while Western tourists valued comfort more [32]. Melzer and Meyer-Cech highlighted that rural initiatives use cultural authenticity to attract tourists and indicated that all the case studies analyzed used staging instruments with various regional characteristics [34]. Lee and Smith analyzed culture in the dimension of cultural identity, which deals with experiences related to learning and connection with cultural heritage, as they developed a visitor experience scale for historical sites and museums. Therefore, culture plays a role in providing educational and meaningful experiences that reinforce cultural identity for tourists [35].

In J. Kim et al.’s research, a scale was developed to measure memorable tourist experiences, and one of its dimensions addressed local culture, focusing on how tourists connect with local culture and how this impacts significant and memorable experiences [51]. Yu and Lee focused on culture in terms of the intercultural interactions that tourists have and how they adapt and navigate cultural differences, and how these experiences affect their perception of local culture [36]. Mehra addressed cultural shocks and how cultural surprises affect the experience; these surprises can be positive or negative. It was indicated that tourism organizations should manage tourists’ surprised emotions to ensure that they are positive [37]. Pung et al. indicated that culture is important in transformative tourism, as cultural shocks can generate a higher level of cultural awareness and understanding of cultural diversity [43]. Smelser and Baltes points out that tourist culture is an object of conscious manipulation within social, economic, and political contexts, where it is not an authentic culture but a staged one to create a tourist context [38].

Moufakkir analyzed culture through Goffman’s (1963) stigma theories, noting how cultural and religious differences generate stigmatization. They also addressed culture from the perspective that Arabs and Muslims are stigmatized, generating feelings of sadness, low self-esteem, anger, and defensiveness; they primarily addressed the cultural clash between these types of tourists and the destination [54]. Torres-Moraga et al. considered culture as one of the three aspects for developing their sustainability scale and indicated that tourists’ experiences are influenced by the cultural and heritage resources of the destination, as well as how local culture contributes to the perception of cultural sustainability [39]. In Brown and Osman’s research, culture played a fundamental role as they studied the experience of women in an Islamic country and how they coped with local norms in a male-constructed place, facing unwanted male attention and sexual harassment, leading them to adapt to local female norms for self-protection [55]. J. Kim found in his research that perceptions of friendliness, availability, and hospitality of the hosts contributed to memorable tourist experiences, as well as learning about local culture, lifestyles, and history [52].

Qiu et al., in their research on the cross-cultural gender role in tourist self-representation, found that gender differences in self-representation are more notable in American culture than in Chinese culture. They also found that Chinese tourists, regardless of gender, carry their self-representation concerns to tourist destinations, but American women experienced more significant relief in their self-representation at destinations than men [56]. Sterchele studied tourist experiences, memories, and event consequences together, addressing culture through social rituals and how specific cultural practices can generate collective effervescence and strengthen group identity [53]. Zhu et al. indicated that the cultural context influences how tourists perceive and manage stress during their trip, as cultural clashes can be a source of stress for tourists [44]. Moufakkir, in his research on the stigma on Arab and Muslim women, addressed culture regarding how cultural and religious norms can influence their experience according to the perception of host cultures, where they face cultural clashes and, therefore, must apply adaptation strategies [57].

Teoh et al. addressed culture from the perspective of how cultural differences can influence tourists’ perception and behavior in their transformative tourism experiences and how cultural barriers can create challenges [46]. Carvalho and Moraes conducted a literature review on how different cultures and risks affect tourism, indicating that different cultures perceive risk differently and that knowledge of cultural differences is required to manage tourism and its associated risks. They conducted this literature review using a mixed method approach, extracting publications from the Web of Science with a series of keywords, refining the search, and finally analyzing only the most pertinent publications. They found that cultural differences directly affect how people interact during the tourist experience, for example, when choosing transportation or accommodation. They also indicated that risk perceptions based on language knowledge in the destination and how risk is managed directly affect memorable tourist experiences [62].

Table 10. Different ways of approaching culture.

Way of Addressing Culture	Studies
Conceptual	[16,23,26,28,29,30,32,34,35,36,37,38,39,43,44,46,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,62]
Cultural Tourism	[21,27,31,40,41,45,60]
Hofstede’s dimensions	[33,58,59]

highlights how studies are approaching culture. From the collected literature, it was found that culture is addressed in two ways in the research: conceptually, i.e., addressing culture as a definition and its role in TX, or as cultural tourism, a type of tourism where people are motivated to visit and learn about cultural sites.

In most cases, culture is considered within TX analyses that are not directly related to cultural tourism but rather how culture influences TX. It was found that analyzing culture can reduce the associated risks related to cultural clashes, as both the tourists’ culture and the destination culture affect TX. Some of these cultural clashes are represented by risk perceptions, language, tranquility, relationships, emotions, comfort, stigmatization, sustainability, and sexual harassment, among others.

However, it should be noted that cultural clashes can be positive or negative, as they can generate a higher level of awareness and understanding of diverse cultures, including one’s own.

Culture is also approached from two perspectives: cultural sites, which are areas offering attractions representing the destination’s culture, such as museums, monuments, and buildings, among others; and the inherent culture of the place, present throughout the destination, such as language, relationships, clothing, food, and religion, among others. Both create a cultural significance in TX that helps tourists understand how to navigate cultural differences, which can result in adaptation strategies.

Additionally, it was found that three studies [33,58,59] based their research on Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, discussed in Section 2.4, which resulted in adaptations according to each publication’s specific research topic; these studies focused on the dimensions of power distance, individualism/collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term orientation.

6. Conclusions

In this systematic literature review, it was found that studies considered culture as one of the fundamental factors of TX, and some even focused specifically on the cultural analysis of tourists, either for a particular type of tourism or a specific location. Therefore, this research has a holistic approach that can be applied to any type of tourism and destination.

6.1. Theoretical Implications

In general, studies analyzed TX from the tourist’s point of view, focusing on critical insights or improvements in their experience. However, only three analyses approached it from the UX [61] and CX [22,24] perspectives. Studying TX from a CX perspective can provide strategies to improve the experience and mitigate risks or negative cultural perceptions, as the analyzed studies addressed tourists’ perceptions of various products, systems, and services that they interacted with throughout the trip, including pre-trip, during-trip, and post-trip processes. Therefore, in this research, TX was considered a type of CX, which are both extensions of UX.

Another important factor that was widely discussed in the analyzed studies is the subjectivity of TX, which directly impacts destination recommendations and the intention to return. While the destination’s participation is relevant, there are also individual factors for each tourist, such as sociodemographic differences, travel motives, personal emotions, expectations, and interests, among others, that help shape a perception of TX that can be more positive or negative. According to the research by Zhu et al. [44], tourists’ experiences are influenced by themselves, their travel companions, service providers, and the environment. Therefore, in this case, personal and contextual elements influence 50% of the TX, and it is the tourist destination’s job to enhance and apply improvement strategies so that tourists perceive cultural clashes positively according to their culture of origin.

It was also found that many studies focused on memorable tourist experiences; however, it is also necessary to analyze negative experiences to learn what needs to be corrected and to avoid repeating the same mistakes.

Regarding the first research question, it can be inferred that TX is a multidimensional and subjective phenomenon influenced by individual, social, and cultural factors. Furthermore, it was found that various authors have studied TX from different perspectives and that the experience occurs before, during, and after the interaction with the tourism environment. The experience encompasses emotions, perceptions, and behaviors, all of which play a key role in satisfaction, loyalty, and the intention to revisit or recommend a destination. Establishing a clear TX definition will facilitate analyses in future studies and enables a standardized approach to TX management.

Answering the second research question identified the dimensions, attributes, and factors affecting TX which were derived from empirical studies and systematic reviews and primarily encompassed individual, social, and cultural elements, including factors such as authenticity, identity, and motivation, among others. Collectively, these dimensions suggest that TX is profoundly shaped by a combination of personal and environmental factors, which are essential for understanding and enhancing tourist satisfaction and overall experience.

Regarding the third research question, it was found that various methods have been employed to assess TX, primarily relying on questionnaires and surveys, which were widely used to evaluate aspects such as tourist satisfaction, emotions, and cultural interactions. Some studies developed specific scales, such as those assessing post-pandemic tourism or memorable experiences, and using statistical analysis for validation. Interviews were another common method, particularly for gaining in-depth insights into tourists’ perceptions and cultural challenges. Additionally, some research utilized travel notes or online reviews to analyze tourists’ opinions. Others applied multiple methods, combining surveys with interviews, focus groups, or observational techniques to provide a comprehensive evaluation of TX.

From answering the fourth research question, it can be inferred that in TX, culture is examined from two perspectives: conceptually and through cultural tourism. Conceptual studies focused on how culture shapes tourists’ perceptions, emotions, and interactions during their travels, emphasizing cultural clashes, language barriers, and comfort, among other factors. On the other hand, research on cultural tourism explores the role tourists play in relation to local heritage and culture through places, history, and traditions. Additionally, some studies employed Hofstede’s cultural dimensions to analyze how cultural differences influence tourists’ behavior and perceptions, demonstrating that culture plays a fundamental role in shaping TX and addressing potential cultural risks.

There is a need to generate a centralized definition of TX that considers cultural factors and is holistic for all types of tourism and destinations. Additionally, there is a need for a standardized evaluation instrument for TX that can be used for the pre-trip, during-trip, and post-trip stages. The exploration of cultural influence in TX opens up opportunities to delve into specific topics, such as the effects of cultural diversity on tourist satisfaction and loyalty, or the impact of cultural differences on perceptions of quality and authenticity. This analysis also facilitates the development of theories and models that explain how tourist experiences are constructed in diverse cultural contexts, contributing to a more global and comprehensive understanding of tourism.

This systematic review provides a solid theoretical framework that identifies how cultural factors impact TX. By synthesizing the methods and approaches used in previous studies, this research facilitates the development of new studies that address TX from multiple dimensions, including emotions, perceptions, and cultural expectations. Researchers can leverage these findings to explore new lines of inquiry and develop more precise evaluation tools to analyze TX comprehensively, thereby enriching the knowledge in this field.

6.2. Managerial and Social Implications

The study’s findings provide key insights not only for researchers but they may also have managerial and social implications. Research on TX considering cultural factors offers significant benefits to various stakeholders. For tourism professionals, this study enables a deeper understanding of how cultural aspects affect tourists’ perceptions and satisfaction. This insight is valuable for designing marketing and management strategies that consider the cultural expectations of visitors, creating more enriching experiences and promoting destination loyalty. Moreover, by understanding how cultural interactions influence CX, professionals can better adapt their services to meet the needs of tourists from diverse backgrounds, contributing to a more inclusive and sustainable tourism industry.

Socially, this study contributes to fostering a better understanding and respect for cultural diversity within tourism. By highlighting how tourists’ experiences and perceptions can be influenced by cultural differences, this research can raise awareness about the importance of cultural hospitality and adapting practices that value cultural inclusion among local communities. This approach not only improves TX but also promotes intercultural understanding and respectful coexistence, which are essential for the development of culturally conscious and sustainable tourism.

The first question aimed to define TX and how it is constructed through cultural interactions. For tourism professionals, this definition is highly relevant, as it allows them to identify elements that may contribute to a positive or negative experience. By identifying and understanding these factors, they can adjust their service offerings to maximize tourist satisfaction. Socially, this understanding foster greater sensitivity to tourists’ cultural expectations, promoting inclusion and respect for diversity in interactions.

The second question focused on identifying the dimensions, factors, and attributes that affect TX. For tourism professionals, this knowledge enables the creation of culturally appropriate, personalized experiences by adapting services and activities to the needs and expectations of each tourist. Socially, understanding these attributes aids in creating tourism policies that promote respectful and enriching experiences, strengthening the relationship between visitors and residents.

The third question addresses the most effective methods for evaluating TX. For tourism professionals, understanding and implementing these methods allows them to gather valuable information on the perceptions of their services and areas for improvement, promoting a proactive approach to managing tourist satisfaction. Socially, the use of evaluation methods helps us to better understand how practices and the environment affect tourists, promoting initiatives that minimize cultural conflicts and maximize enjoyment and respect between tourists and local communities.

The fourth research question explored how culture affects TX, encompassing both the cultural factors of tourists and the destination. For tourism professionals, understanding this influence is essential, as it allows them to anticipate and adapt to the expectations and potential cultural clashes that tourists may experience. This results in better service adaptation and the creation of more personalized and culturally sensitive experiences. In the social domain, analyzing culture in TX promotes mutual respect and coexistence between tourists and local communities. By making visible how cultural values and beliefs influence tourist interactions, this research fosters policies and practices that support inclusive and culturally conscious tourism.

7. Limitations and Future Work

The limitations of this research are related to the databases used and the number of studies, as only three databases were used: Web of Science, Scopus, and Science Direct. Several studies that were too specific to a particular topic were also excluded.

Additionally, further exploration of other sources of information, such as specialized tourism magazines, could enrich the analysis from a more practical perspective based on the experiences of professionals in the field. It would be also interesting to examine the sponsorship of studies, and to determine whether the governments, tourism offices, or university departments conducting this research have personal motivations influencing their findings. Understanding the potential biases or interests behind these entities could provide valuable insights into the integrity and objectivity of the research outcomes.

Future research lines include consolidating the definition of TX from a CX perspective and incorporating this research area into tourism. It is also relevant to specifically identify the dimensions and subdimensions, with their respective approaches and definitions used in their studies. A TX model that explicitly includes cultural aspects is necessary. It would help in defining TX evaluation frameworks/methodologies that may better capture all its relevant aspects for specific contexts, using both specific and holistic approaches. Such a model would also help in developing effective TX design and management strategies.