Parents’ Responses and Children’s Subjective Well-Being: The Role of Parent–Child Relationship and Friendship Quality

Abstract

The current study examined the psychological mechanism that underlies the relationship between parents’ response style and children’s subjective well-being and its boundary conditions, the mediating role of the parent–child relationship, and the moderating role of friendship quality. Using the Parents’ Responses to Children’s Performance Scale, the Buchanan Scale of Closeness to Parents, the Friendship Quality Questionnaire, and the Campbell Index of Well-being, our study investigated 686 pupils who were randomly selected from three public schools in central China. Employing Mplus 8.3 for pathway analysis, we found the following results: Failure-oriented responses negatively predict children’s subjective well-being (β = −0.16, p < 0.001), while success-oriented responses positively predict children’s subjective well-being (β = 0.13, p < 0.01). Both failure-oriented (ab = 0.18, SE = 0.03, 95% CI = [0.13, 0.25]) and success-oriented responses (ab = −0.10, SE = 0.02, 95% CI = [−0.14, −0.06]) predict children’s subjective well-being through the mediating effect of the parent–child relationship. Friendship quality has a moderating effect on the mediating path (β = −0.09, p < 0.05), such that when friendship quality is lower, the parent–child relationship has a higher mediating effect between the parents’ responses and children’s subjective well-being. This study offers empirical evidence that parents’ responses to children’s performance significantly contribute to children’s subjective well-being. Moreover, it offers actionable insights for enhancing children’s subjective well-being. The enhancement could be achieved by fostering positive parent–child relationships and enhancing the quality of children’s friendships, thereby positively impacting their well-being.

1. Introduction

Recently, catchphrases such as “push kids to succeed” and “tiger mother” have become widespread, reflecting parents’ heightened worry for their children’s studies and anxiety that their children may fall behind in their education. This phenomenon has triggered attention in researchers on parenting related to children’s learning, such as praise and parental responses to children’s performance [1,2]. Parents’ response refers to parents’ reactions to the success or failure of their children’s performance [2,3]. Parents’ responses are classified into failure- and success-oriented responses. Failure-oriented responses center on addressing and navigating children’s mistakes, including emphasizing failure and de-emphasizing success: emphasizing failure means that when children perform poorly, parents may focus solely on the mistake and urge the child to improve; de-emphasizing failure means that when children perform well, parents still focus more on their children’s errors, but rarely notice what they are doing well. Conversely, success-oriented responses focus on children’s success, including de-emphasizing failure and emphasizing success; de-emphasizing failure means that when children perform poorly, their parents will encourage them and minimize their failure; emphasizing success means that when children gain achievement, their parents will appreciate them considerably [2,4].

Learning is the primary responsibility of school-aged children, and parents often interact with their children on a daily basis to support their education. Parents’ responses to their children’s performance can influence their mental health and emotional functioning [5,6]. Failure-oriented responses, while associated with potential improvements in cognitive performance, concurrently exhibit adverse effects on emotional functions; in contrast, success-oriented responses do not affect children’s cognitive performance but are beneficial to the development of their emotional functions [2,4,6].

Parents hope to raise a “happy, academically successful child”. We focus on subjective well-being, the outcome variable of parents’ responses, because research indicates that some children excel academically but are emotionally distressed [3]. Subjective well-being is a psychological index that reflects an individual’s overall quality of life based on subjective criteria [7]. It usually includes life satisfaction and positive emotional adaptation and is a significant indicator of mental health. Individuals benefit from well-being in terms of overall health, work, and life [8]. Studies have shown that different parenting not only affects subjective child and adolescent well-being but also predicts emotional adaptation disorders, such as depression and anxiety [5,9]. Similar to other parenting practices, parents’ responses can also influence their children’s emotional development [2,6,9].

However, little is known about the manner in which a parent’s response will affect the capacity of their kid to adjust emotionally. Parents and friends play essential roles in a child’s wellness and emotional well-being. Thus, parent–child and peer relationships are the microscopic systems that influence the mental growth of children [10]. In childhood and early adolescence, in addition to the parent–child relationship, children’s peer relationships, meaningful social relationships, have developed rapidly and have a growing impact on their mental health and social adaptation [11,12,13]. Thus, we included children from the third to sixth grades in elementary schools in China as participants. The objective of this study is to investigate the mediating role played by the parent–child relationship and the moderating impact of children’s friendship quality in the association between parents’ responses and children’s subjective well-being. The findings from this research endeavor to contribute practical recommendations for parents, shedding light on ways they can effectively support their children’s emotional health and social adjustment amidst the demanding landscape of academic pursuits. Through a comprehensive examination of these intricate relationships, our study seeks to enhance our understanding of the complex factors that contribute to children’s well-being, which can provide scientific foundations for parents’ efforts to maintain their children’s mental health while focusing on their studies.

1.1. Parents’ Response and Children’s Subjective Well-Being

According to the ecological model of developmental processes, the family environment is a far-reaching microsystem in the process of individual development the of individual [10]. Parenting is an important environmental variable that influences individual development within the family system. Consistent with this theory, researchers have demonstrated a strong correlation between parenting practices and subjective well-being, self-esteem, anxiety, and depression in children [5,9]. Parents’ responses, functioning as crucial learning-related practices, constitute a microsystem within the family that can significantly shape children’s emotional adaptation and mental health.

The satisfaction of basic psychological needs theory postulates that people have three fundamental psychological needs: the need for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. The frustration of these needs will influence an individual’s psychological development, internalization, and well-being [14]. As a parenting behavior, failure-oriented responses can help improve children’s cognitive performance. However, they ignore the children’s advantages and focus disproportionately on their shortcomings, constantly urging them to correct their mistakes. Consequently, children’s need for competence and autonomy will be frustrated, leading to emotional distress [2,3]. Studies indicate that the more parents concentrate on their children’s failures, the more depressed their children are when they fail [4]. Conversely, success-oriented responses from parents minimize their children’s failures and emphasize their successes more. By constantly encouraging children, parents ensure the satisfaction of their children’s competence and autonomy needs. Therefore, the children will experience greater pleasure and efficacy while performing their tasks and be happier and prouder of their accomplishments [4,15]. Additionally, this has a good predictive value for the children’s eventual subjective well-being [6]. Thus, our hypotheses posit that there exists a negative correlation between failure-oriented responses and children’s well-being, while a positive association is theorized between success-oriented responses and well-being, suggesting that these approaches may contribute positively to the subjective well-being of children.

1.2. Mediating Effects of the Parent–Child Relationship

One of the most crucial interpersonal interactions in a child’s development is that between parents and their children [16,17]. The parent–child relationship’s primary characteristic is the strong emotional and physical bonds between children and parents. According to studies, a positive parent–child relationship promotes children’s social adaption, enhances their life satisfaction and subjective well-being, and decreases their emotional distress, such as loneliness and sadness [18,19]. Thus, the existing literature consistently highlights the significance of positive aspects within this relationship, such as intimacy and support, in correlating with enhanced well-being outcomes for children. While bad parenting practices can increase parent–child conflicts and decrease intimacy between parents and children, positive parenting behaviors can promote parent–child intimacy and reduce negative emotions and violent conflicts between parents and children [20]. Different parenting behaviors play distinct roles in the formation of the relationship between parents and their children, as demonstrated by this finding. The two parents’ responses may also relate differently to the parent–child relationship.

Integrating insights from the self-determination theory [14], which underscores the importance of fulfilling basic psychological needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), this study proposes that as an individual’s environment, success-oriented responses by parents can contribute to the positive dynamics of the parent–child relationship. By acknowledging and celebrating children’s achievements, these responses align with fulfilling the basic psychological needs, fostering a positive atmosphere within the familial context. On the contrary, failure-oriented responses, which center on mistakes and shortcomings, are theorized to potentially damage the parent–child relationship, consequently jeopardizing children’s subjective well-being. Empirical studies have also shown that good communication with parents can contribute to developing a warm and supportive parent–child relationship that is closely linked to children’s well-being [18]. This theoretical framework forms the basis for hypotheses positing that success-oriented responses will positively correlate with a nurturing parent–child relationship and, in turn, enhance children’s well-being, while failure-oriented responses will exhibit negative associations with both the relationship and well-being.

1.3. Moderating Effects of Friendship Quality

From the perspective of the environment, peer and parent–child relationships are vital interpersonal ties for children compared with other social relationships [13,17,21]. Peer relationships are important protective factors influencing the adaptability and development of children and essential sources of their well-being [11,22]. Research has indicated that peer support can improve the subjective well-being of children and adolescents [23]. Positive friendship quality can provide children and adolescents with emotional support, enhance their emotional adaptation, reduce their depression and anxiety [24,25], and improve their subjective well-being [26].

Bogenschneider’s “Ecological Risk/Protective Theory” provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the risk and protective factors that contribute to individual development, emphasizing the central roles of parent–child and peer relationships [27,28]. In this theoretical perspective, these relationships are regarded as key protectors against various ecological risks that individuals may encounter. The “protective–protective model” further illuminates the synergistic effects of parent–child and peer relationships on developmental outcomes [28,29,30]. This model posits that the protective factors interact, influencing the overall trajectory of development in children, and has been widely used in studies [31,32,33]. Extending the examination of protective factors to the realm of friendships, research indicates that friendship quality plays a moderating role in the impact of family environment factors on children’s emotional adaptation [25,31,32].

The protective–protective model suggests that friendship quality may influence the mediating effects of the parent–child relationship on parental responses and children’s subjective well-being. A protective-enhancing model or a protective-attenuating model may best describe how this relationship manifests itself. The former indicates that one protective element can boost the beneficial influence of another, whereas the latter indicates that one protective factor can weaken the positive impact of another [32,33]. If the moderating effect appears in accordance with the protective-enhancing model, the parent–child relationship has a greater mediating effect between the two types of parental responses and children’s subjective well-being when the friendship quality is higher. In the protective-attenuating model, there is less of a mediating influence between the two types of responses from parents and the subjective well-being of children when there is a higher friendship quality.

1.4. The Present Study

This study endeavors to bridge a critical gap in the current understanding of the intricate mechanisms through which parents’ success- and failure-oriented responses wield an impact on the subjective well-being of children. In recognizing the central role that interpersonal relationships play in children’s development, this research takes a dual focus on children’s perceptions of the parent–child relationship and the quality of their friendships. By probing into these crucial factors, the study aims to unravel the nuanced dynamics that underlie the effects of parental responses on children’s emotional and psychological well-being. The emphasis on both parent–child relationships and friendships acknowledges the interconnectedness of these relationships in shaping the socioemotional landscape of children’s lives.

This research posited clear hypotheses that success-oriented responses by parents will yield a positive influence on children’s well-being, as these responses are likely to foster a stronger perception of a close parent–child relationship, partially mediated by their enhanced parent–child relationship. Conversely, failure-oriented responses would negatively affect subjective well-being, partially mediated by their deteriorated parent–child relationship. Additionally, we aimed to explore potential differences in these pathways based on children’s friendship quality. In China, third-to-sixth-graders participated in surveys to investigate these issues.

This research holds significant implications for the broader field of psychology by contributing to the understanding of parental responses’ impact on children’s mental health, distinct from studies that predominantly focus on self-esteem [34]. Self-esteem stands for the affecting, or evaluation, part of the self-concept. It reflects how individuals perceive about themselves. In this study, the measurement of subjective well-being centers on their contentment with life and their positive emotions. Investigating these different outcome variables allows for a richer understanding of how parental responses impact children’s emotional functioning. Moreover, different from the previous article, which examined a sequential mediation model, this study adopted a moderated mediation model, a sophisticated analytical approach that delves into the intricate relationships between variables. In this model, parent–child relationships serve as mediators, elucidating the pathways through which parental responses influence subjective well-being. Additionally, friendship quality is introduced as an external factor beyond the family environment that may moderate the observed effects, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted influences on children’s well-being. The significance of this research lies not only in its theoretical contributions but also in its potential to inform practical strategies for promoting positive parent–child relationships and fostering healthy friendships in the school environment to support children’s mental health.

To ensure the robustness of the study, a comprehensive set of measurement tools has been employed. This study focuses on success- and failure-oriented responses, akin to praise and criticism. Previous measurement tools in research have primarily focused solely on parental praise for different aspects of children or purely on criticism [35,36]. However, our study focuses on parental responses to children’s performance (especially in daily academic performance) including failure or success, namely, simultaneously measuring praise and criticism behaviors. The Chinese version of the parents’ response scale developed by Ny et al. for parental reactions to children’s performance aligns with our research objectives [4]; thus, we chose this scale for this study. For the measurement of subjective well-being, the well-being index scale compiled by Campbell widely validated in Chinese samples was selected, utilizing only nine items to obtain indicators of children’s positive emotions and satisfaction with life [37]. Buchanan et al.’s parent–child closeness scale [38] was used to measure parent–child relationships. With Cronbach’s α as high as 0.91, the revised Chinese version of this scale has been used extensively with Chinese children, demonstrating strong validity and reliability [39,40,41]. Its fewer items also aim to reduce fatigue and exhaustion among child participants as much as possible. The measurement of friendship quality utilized a well-established questionnaire (Parker and Asher’s Friendship Quality Questionnaire) that has been widely used globally [24,25,42] and has devised a simplified version specifically adapted for the Chinese population [43,44,45].

2. Methods

2.1. Participants

With the cluster sampling approach, 746 students in Grades 3–6 from three primary schools in Central China were selected as respondents. The chosen three schools represent diverse levels of academic performance—high, moderate, and low—within public elementary schools situated in mid-sized cities with middle-income households. After eliminating invalid data, 686 valid questionnaires were collected, resulting in an effective recovery rate of 91.96%. There were 367 boys (53.5%) aged 8 to 12 (M = 10.31, SD = 1.04). The participants comprised 23.9 percent (164) of third- and fifth-grade elementary school students, 26.4 percent (181) of fourth-grade students, and 25.8 percent (177) of sixth-grade students. The respondents’ and their guardians’ informed consent was acquired.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Parents’ Response

The study employed the Chinese version of parents’ response scale compiled by Ng et al. to evaluate parental responses to children’s performance [4]. The scale consists of a success-oriented and a failure-oriented response subscale, with 16 items scored that used a 5-point Likert-like rating (1 = Never, 5 = Always). Each of the two subscales contains eight items. Children were asked to imagine two scenarios, one in which they successfully passed an exam and the other in which they did not, and to rate their potential parental reactions. Failure-oriented responses center on emphasizing children’s errors about their failure (e.g., “My parents would make a big deal out of my failure”) and success (e.g., “My parents would talk about why I didn’t get a perfect score”). Children’s accomplishments are emphasized in the context of their failure (e.g., “My parents would pay attention to the answers I got right”) and success (e.g., “My parents would be very proud of me”) in success-oriented responses. Greater use of each response was demonstrated by larger numbers obtained from the mean of the eight items that made up the measure for each type of response. In order to conduct cross-cultural comparisons, the developers of this scale initially created a Chinese version, which has been used widely with Chinese children and has shown considerable reliability and validity [4,6]. In this study, the coefficients of the two subscales were 0.77 and 0.80.

2.2.2. Subjective Well-Being

The well-being index scale compiled by Campbell was used to assess children’s subjective well-being [37], which contains two parts: a general affect index and a life satisfaction item. Eight items representing emotional connotations from various perspectives comprise the general affect index (e.g., “What is the affective state you are experiencing now?”). Participants are asked to reply to a series of paired adjectives describing how they feel in positive or negative terms, on a scale that goes from 1 (e.g., enjoyable) to 7 (miserable). Additionally, a single question (“How satisfied are you with your life?”) was used as a life satisfaction questionnaire. The well-being index was calculated by adding the average score of the general affect index and the score for the satisfaction item with a weight of 1.1. Higher total scores indicate better subjective well-being. Numerous prior investigations have thoroughly established the reliability of the Chinese equivalent of this measure [46,47]. The scale’s α coefficient in the present study was 0.93.

2.2.3. Parent–Child Relationship

The parent–child intimacy scale, compiled by Buchanan et al. [38], was used to gauge the relationship between parents and children. This scale specifically assessed relationships with both the father and the mother. With 9 items allocated to each parent, utilizing the 5-point grading method, the scale captured various facets of parent–child intimacy. The average score across the items reflected the overall quality of the parent–child relationship. The deeper the bond between parents and children, the higher the score. This scale is widely used with Chinese children, indicating high reliability [39,40]. Reliability analyses demonstrated robust internal consistency, with a high overall reliability coefficient (α = 0.92) and reliability coefficients of 0.89 for both father and mother subscales.

2.2.4. Friendship Quality

The 18-item Chinese version of the streamlined Friendship Quality Questionnaire was utilized to measure friendship quality [42,43]. The scale is used to evaluate how well the respondents and their best friend get along and uses a 5-point grading method. The quality of friendship was found to be higher the higher the score. This simplified scale has excellent reliability and validity among Chinese children [44,45]. The scale’s α coefficient in this investigation was 0.86.

2.2.5. Procedure and Data Analysis

Two interviewers guided the children in filling out the questionnaires during a test administered to the class as a unit. SPSS 23.0 was utilized for correlation analysis, whereas Mplus 8.3 was used for path analysis. It was discovered that girls had better quality parent–child relationships and greater subjective well-being than boys [23,25]. In addition, grades are negatively correlated with well-being [23]. In light of the relationships of gender and grade with children’s parent–child relationships and subjective well-being, these variables were taken as the control factors in the follow-up statistical analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Preliminary Analyses

Correlation analysis and descriptive statistics showed that children’s subjective well-being was connected positively with success-oriented responses, parent–child relationship, and friendship quality and negatively with failure-oriented responses. The parent–child connection was found to have positive associations with success-oriented responses and friendship quality, whereas it was found to have negative correlations with failure-oriented responses. Success-oriented responses were positively connected with friendship quality (See

Table 1. Averages, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients of variables.

Variable	M	SD	1	2	3	4	5
1. Success-oriented responses	2.94	0.95	1
2. Failure-oriented responses	2.79	0.93	0.12 **	1
3. Well-being	5.39	1.47	0.26 ***	−0.17 ***	1
4. Parent–child relationship	3.38	0.97	0.35 ***	−0.15 ***	0.46 ***	1
5. Friendship quality	3.78	0.75	0.24 ***	0.07	0.29 ***	0.32 ***	1

Note: N = 686, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.

).

3.2. Main Analyses

The study utilized path coefficient graphs and a Bootstrap method with 5000 random samples to test the model’s main effects, mediation, and moderation. Before conducting path analysis, we standardized continuous variables to mitigate multicollinearity. Finally, if there was a significant interaction effect between parent–child relationships and friendship quality on subjective well-being, we proceeded with further simple slope analysis on the terms.

Figure 1 displays the path analysis’s results. When gender and grade were controlled, success-oriented responses were positively correlated with parent–child relationship (β = 0.37, p < 0.001) and subjective well-being (β = 0.13, p < 0.01), while parent–child relationship had a positive correlation with subjective well-being (β = 0.35, p < 0.001). Negative correlations were found between failure-oriented responses and parent–child relationship (β = −0.19, p < 0.001) and subjective well-being (β = −0.16, p < 0.001). The fitting index of this model was χ²/df = 2.13, RMSEA = 0.04, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.96, SRMR = 0.03.

The test results for mediating effects with the Bootstrap method based on deviation correction show that the mediated parent–child relationship links success-oriented responses and subjective well-being, with an effective value of 0.18 and a 95% confidence interval (CI) of [0.13, 0.25]. The test results for mediating effects with the Bootstrap method based on deviation correction show that the parent–child relationship mediated between success-oriented responses and subjective well-being, at a value of effect of 0.18 and 95% CI of [0.13, 0.25]. Similarly, parent–child relationship had a mediating effect between failure-oriented responses and subjective well-being, with a mediating effect value of −0.10 and a 95% CI of [−0.14, −0.06]. Neither of these included 0.

The interaction of parent–child relationship and friendship quality had a negative correlation with children’s subjective well-being (β = −0.09, p < 0.05). This suggests that friendship quality impacted the association between parent–child relationships and subjective well-being. We carried out a simple slope test to further explore this moderating effect model (See Figure 2). The results indicate that for children with higher friendship quality, the parent–child relationship has a positive correlation to subjective well-being (simple slope = 0.37, t = 4.60, p < 0.001). For children with lower friendship quality, the positive relation between parent–child relationship and subjective well-being was gradually enhanced (simple slope = 0.61, t = 8.13, p < 0.001).

The outcomes of the test on the moderated mediating effect indicate that when children’s friendship quality is lower compared to when it is higher, the parent–child relationship’s mediator effect values for the relations of two types of parents’ responses and subjective well-being are both greater (see

Table 2. Mediating effects of parent–child relationship at different friendship quality.

Mediating Path	Friendship Quality	Effect	SE	Boot LLCI	Boot ULCI
Success-oriented → Parent–Child relationship → Well-being	M − 1 SD	0.23	0.03	0.16	0.30
	M	0.18	0.03	0.13	0.25
	M + 1 SD	0.14	0.03	0.08	0.21
Failure-oriented → Parent–Child relationship → Well-being	M − 1 SD	−0.12	0.03	−0.18	−0.07
	M	−0.10	0.02	−0.14	−0.06
	M + 1 SD	−0.07	0.02	−0.12	−0.04

). Specifically, the beneficial effects of success-oriented responses on subjective well-being through strengthening the parent–child relationship diminish gradually as friendship quality improves. Similarly, the negative effect of failure-oriented responses on subjective well-being through diminishing the parent–child relationship decreases gradually.

4. Discussion

This study built a moderated mediation model to investigate the relationship between two types of parental responses and children’s subjective well-being and internal mechanisms. The results show that parent–child relationship has a mediating effect between the two types of parents’ responses and subjective well-being, and friendship quality moderates the second part of the path. These findings help explain the crucial question of how and when parents’ responses connect to children’s subjective well-being, which is essential for improving children’s mental health.

4.1. Mediating Effect of Parent–Child Relationship

The findings of this study illuminate the direct influence that parents’ responses wield on the well-being of children. In particular, failure-oriented responses are identified as having a negative correlation with subjective well-being, whereas success-oriented responses have demonstrated a positive correlation with subjective well-being. This agrees with findings from earlier research [2,34]. This could be because answers that focus on failure instill in children the idea that “You are never good enough”, hence frustrating children’s competence and autonomy needs. Thus, such responses cause children emotional distress and reduce their well-being. By comparison, success-oriented responses provide unconditionally positive attention to children, thereby meeting their competence and autonomy needs. They can evoke positive emotions in children and boost their self-esteem and well-being [17,18]. In Wei et al.’s study [6], both types of parents’ responses to children’s performance did not significantly affect the subjective well-being of early Chinese adolescent participants. These differing results may be caused by age differences in the participants; as children grow older, the salience of parental responses in shaping emotional functioning may decrease, and the effect of peer relationships may gain prominence [12,13].

Furthermore, the present research discovered that the association between the two kinds of parental responses and subjective well-being was mediated by the parent–child relationship. This result is consistent with the self-determination theory, which posits that parenting behavior in the family environment influences the satisfaction of children’s relatedness needs (parent–child relationship) and, in turn, their well-being [14].

Children’s feelings of self-worth can be safeguarded and an unconditional sense of positive regard from parents can be instilled by parents through their success-oriented responses. Such responses can mediate the formation of a trusting, harmonious parent–child relationship. This relationship, characterized by emotional sharing and mutual understanding, becomes a crucial conduit for the positive effects of success-oriented responses to the subjective well-being of children. In contrast, failure-oriented responses strain the parent–child interaction, leading to conflict, alienation, and a reduction in overall well-being [17]. This mediation underscores the pivotal role of parenting behavior in influencing children’s satisfaction with respect to relatedness needs and overall well-being. Recognizing the parent–child relationship as a crucial mediator provides valuable insights into the pathways through which parenting practices translate into children’s well-being outcomes.

4.2. Moderating Effects of Friendship Quality

This study illuminated how the quality of friendships among children interacts with the mediating function of the parent–child relationship in the context of parental responses and children’s subjective well-being. According to the results, friendship quality functions as a moderator by affecting the mediating effect’s strength, which decreased as friendship quality rose. This result is consistent with the protective–protective model [27,28], indicating that two protective variables may interact to influence an individual’s development. This interaction was found to match the protective-attenuating model [25,32]. This moderating model is also regarded as “too beautiful to be absorbed”, i.e., when individual resources are low, ecological resources benefit social adaptation. When individual resources are abundant, their social adaptation may be in a “saturated” state, and ecological resources are unable to play a positive role.

For children with high friendship quality, even if parents’ success-oriented responses can promote the parent–child relationship, the improvement cannot significantly boost children’s subjective well-being. This could be because children who have strong friendships are generally in a high level of subjective well-being (a “saturated” state), and the promotion of a positive parent–child relationship to well-being is limited. Similarly, although parents’ failure-oriented responses have damaged their relationship with children who have high friendship qualities, the harm to those relationships has not significantly diminished the children’s subjective well-being. Children who have more excellent friendships might feel more content. This reserve of resources will act as a relief and buffer when a low-quality parent–child relationship resulting from failure-oriented responses damages the children’s subjective well-being. Identifying this complementing mediating model with moderation is clearly of considerable practical significance for fostering the healthy development of children.

4.3. Implications and Limitations

This study presents a rationale for exploring practice strategies to improve children’s subjective well-being from the perspective of parents’ responses. The acknowledgment of the differential impact of various parents’ responses underscores the need for tailored approaches that parents and guardians should consciously increase their success-oriented responses. By recognizing the profound influence that parenting practices have on children’s emotional development, the study provides a robust rationale for interventions that focus on cultivating positive and affirming parenting. Strategies geared towards enhancing success-oriented responses and improving their relationships can be instrumental in creating an environment that not only supports academic achievements but also nurtures children’s self-worth and well-being.

Moreover, the moderated mediating effect results show that friendship quality acts as a reserve of resources in how parents’ responses affect children’s subjective well-being. On the one hand, success-oriented responses can improve the bond between parents and children, thus improving the children’s subjective well-being. In this case, good friendship quality represents resources held in reserve. Conversely, failure-oriented responses harm the parent–child relationship, diminishing children’s subjective well-being. Good friendship quality is a resource reserve that can provide timely relief from the negative role of failure-oriented responses. This nuanced understanding underscores the interconnectedness of familial and peer relationships in shaping children’s emotional experiences. Parents must support their children in developing and maintaining positive friendships [22], by providing them with invaluable emotional support and guidance while assisting them in resolving conflicts and nurturing healthy relationships [48]. By nurturing emotional intelligence, parents can help their children develop a deep understanding of their own emotions as well as the emotions of others, thereby cultivating empathy, kindness, and strong interpersonal skills; creating a nurturing, supportive, and inclusive home environment further promotes mutual respect, cooperation, and compassion among children.

Educators can leverage these findings by integrating strategies into school programs that promote positive parent–child relationships. Cooperations between schools and parents to reinforce supportive interactions can create a conducive environment that prioritizes supportive relationships and children’s emotional development [49]. From a policy perspective, policymakers can consider initiatives aimed at providing resources and support networks that facilitate positive parent–child relationships and the significance of friendship quality. Overall, our study advocates for collaborative efforts among parents, educators, and policymakers to prioritize and enhance children’s wellness.

Nevertheless, this study does have some limitations. First, it used cross-sectional research. The design imposes constraints on establishing a clear temporal sequence of exposures and outcomes [50,51]. Still, a cross-sectional study has some merits. The approach offers ethical advantages by avoiding deliberate exposure and ensuring that participants are not subjected to interventions for research purposes. They can generate ideas and influence other study designs by revealing outcomes and exposure prevalence. Based on empirical studies [17,22,31], the ecological model of developmental processes [10], and the self-determination theory [14], we can infer that parenting affects the parent–child relationship, which, in turn, has an impact on the psychological adaptation of children. Therefore, our findings laid a solid foundation for confirming the future causal relationship between these variables. Still, longitudinal research can be utilized to confirm the causal relationships further.

Second, the parent–child relationship and friendship quality are merely two components of the micro-system of children’s development. Future studies may investigate how additional protective factors, such as individual characteristics, including self-compassion and psychological resilience, cognitive processes like adversity belief, and beneficial interpretations, influence the connection between parents’ responses and children’s subjective well-being. In addition to emotional functioning, academic achievements can be included as the outcome variable in the future to examine the practical significance of this parenting style for children’s academic development.

Third, prior research has mainly concentrated on investigating how parents’ responses influence the subjective well-being of Chinese adolescents through their perceptions of parents’ goals [6]. The participants in this study consist of children in grades three to six from middle-income cities in central China. It is vital to acknowledge the limitations of this study’s sample when disseminating the findings. Acknowledging earlier studies highlighting the affection of parents’ responses on children’s self-esteem [34], this study further delves into the mediation role of the parent–child relationship and the moderating influence of friendship quality. This integration advances the current literature, providing a more comprehensive understanding of how parental responses intricately intertwine with relational dynamics, shaping children’s well-being. Perhaps the quality of peer relationships may simultaneously act as a mediator and moderator between parent–child relationships and children’s psychological functions, which needs further validation in future research.

Lastly, mothers and fathers may behave very differently toward their children [52], and consequently, they might respond to children’s performance differently. In future studies, we can investigate the influence of the differences and various matching patterns between fathers and mothers with the two response styles on the development of children. Furthermore, our data all are derived from children’s reports. Although studies show that children’s perception of parental behavior has a greater impact on their happiness and behavior than parental reports on parenting behavior [53], considering the potential disparities between parental and child reports on parental behavior [54], future research might employ a multi-informant approach to examine the potential differential impacts of parental and child reports of reactions on children’s emotional functioning.