Citizen Science for Environmental Monitoring in the Eastern Region of Bolivia

Abstract

The eastern region of Bolivia is of high conservation interest due to the presence of the Chiquitano Dry Forest, Dry Chaco, Pantanal and Cerrado ecoregions. However, this region is under high pressure from various anthropogenic threats, which requires continuous monitoring. An alternative for this monitoring is the use of mobile applications designed under the concept of citizen science, in which local stakeholders are part of the process of obtaining information and finding solutions to environmental problems in their territories. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the information obtained during environmental monitoring with a citizen science approach in the eastern region of Bolivia. We developed a public electronic form for the ArcGIS Survey123 mobile application to capture spatial data of nine thematic variables. Between 2021 and 2023, we conducted 16 training courses in 12 population centers, with attendees from 98 communities in 6 municipalities in the region. A total of 360 volunteers from different sectors participated in the training, including technicians from public and private institutions, park rangers, community representatives and citizens. We obtained a total of 379 records, of which 70.4% were recorded near communities and the rest within protected areas. The results were reclassified and grouped into three clusters: human activities, water resources and biodiversity. In the human activities cluster, the categories with the highest number of records were wildfires and deforestation. In the water resources cluster, the categories with the most records were cattle waterholes and streams, but one of the most notable records was the reduction of wetlands in a sector of the Bolivian Pantanal. In the biodiversity cluster, the main reports were for mammals, and among the most notable records obtained were the footprints of the jaguar (Panthera onca). This monitoring tool made it possible to generate and use high-quality information in different sites in the eastern region in almost real time, which could help strengthen the interactions and relationship with users in environmental dialogue and governance processes.

1. Introduction

Citizen science, in its broad definition [1], is an approach that is increasing in popularity in various fields, from environmental to social studies [2,3], all hand in hand with tools and various technological applications [4]. Citizen science can be defined as public participation in scientific research and knowledge production [5]. There is a growing trend to develop collaborative research based on tools under the concept of citizen science as an alternative to contribute to solving major global challenges such as climate change [6], biodiversity loss and social inequalities [7]. In addition, citizen science can improve conservation science, natural resource management and environmental protection [8]. However, one of its main advantages is the ability to cover geographical areas at different scales at a lower cost compared to conventional scientific research [9].

Generally, investigations using citizen science combine adaptable methodological strategies to generate knowledge and make systematic observations of parameters, phenomena or indicators on a broad temporal and spatial scale through a group of local actors in a territory [10]. One of the characteristics of collaborative monitoring is that its main criterion is the collection of data considering the experiences and knowledge of local stakeholders (i.e., volunteers) in collaboration with specialists to achieve integrated administration and the monitoring of natural areas in conjunction with decision makers and non-governmental organizations [11]. Furthermore, involving people in the process can bring benefits to local society [12,13] through democratization of the environment, generating a trend towards more public science [14] and public policy development [15]. At the same time, emerging evidence warns about the management, use, decisions and handling of these types of processes [7]. However, due to the use of non-professional personnel, the projects are often subject to criticism [16].

Bolivia is at a critical moment in the loss of ecosystems of global conservation interest and their environmental functions, mainly due to deforestation and wildfires. In recent decades, the country has registered an alarming increase in the rate of deforestation with an area that has already surpassed 7 million hectares [17], while wildfires have had a severe impact, degrading millions of hectares of forest [18]. These wildfires had a high impact on the biodiversity of the Chiquitano Dry Forest, with some estimates indicating the death of ca. 5.9 million mammals [19]. In addition, the impacts of fires are affecting the ecological integrity and environmental functions of forests [20], mainly in the eastern region. The majority of these analyses have been carried out using satellite products and the monitoring has been conducted by expert researchers, but without the participation of local communities. In this sense, there is an urgent need for continuous environmental monitoring in which local stakeholders are part of the process of obtaining information and finding solutions to environmental problems in their territories. Research based on the concept of citizen science, implemented with the use of tools that can be managed in a practical and simple method, could support the realization of this monitoring.

In Bolivia, probably the first research conducted under the concept of citizen science was carried out with the recording of hunting and wildlife management by indigenous communities [21,22,23]. The results of these studies demonstrated the importance of linking local knowledge and the active participation of communities in the scientific monitoring of biodiversity in the country. In recent years, citizen-science-based studies have focused on obtaining records for hydrological monitoring [24] and biodiversity monitoring [25,26,27], and some non-governmental organizations in the country (e.g., CEJIS, IBIF) have implemented collaborative monitoring focused on recording socio-environmental issues in indigenous territories. However, very few of these studies have published systematized results. Added to this is the lack of updated information on the population status of many plant and animal species, as well as the status of aquatic resources in the eastern region of Bolivia. Furthermore, almost no initiative has been directed towards monitoring that includes decision-makers to identify environmental problems almost in real time, even more so considering the current environmental crisis that the country is going through.

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the process of collecting information obtained during environmental monitoring with a citizen science approach in the eastern region of Bolivia. Three specific objectives were set to achieve the purpose of the research: (i) to determine the human activities that are considered threats to the different ecoregions, (ii) to identify the status of water resource sources and their main pressures and (iii) to recognize which biodiversity groups are most registered by users.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area comprises the eastern region of Bolivia, which is characterized by extensive undulating plains with mountain ranges of variable amplitude, both vertical and horizontal, formed by transverse faults and water erosion [28]. In this region there are different types of vegetation formations, with characteristic landscapes and species, ranging across forests, scrublands, rocky outcrops, well-drained savannas, flooded savannas and wetlands. This region comprises four ecoregions of global conservation concern, such as the Chiquitano Dry Forest, Chaco Seco, Pantanal and Cerrado [29]. These four ecoregions, which cover an area of 32.4 million hectares of the department of Santa Cruz (FCBC, unpublished data), represent 30% of the entire country (Figure 1). At least 40 protected areas are distributed totally or partially in the eastern region of Bolivia (Figure 1), 4 of which are national protected areas (Kaa-Iya, Noel Kempff, San Matías, Otuquis). Also, the eastern region is made up of different cultures and indigenous peoples, such as the Chiquitano, Guarayo, Ayoreo and Guarasugwe, as well as Creoles, indigenous peoples from western Bolivia (Quechua and Aymara) and Mennonite settlers [28]. The main economic activities in this region are centered on mechanized agriculture, cattle ranching and small-scale agriculture [30].

2.2. Citizen Science Application

For field data collection, the mobile application ArcGIS Survey123 [31], a system available for cell phones with Android operating systems, was used. ArcGIS Survey123 captures data through smart forms that contain map-based questions [32]. We developed and configured a system that was known locally as Ecodatos. This public electronic form presents nine thematic variables: wildfires, deforestation, mining, unplanned settlement, commercial hunting, road opening, water bodies, wildlife and the category ‘others’ (Figure 2). The first seven variables allow the selection of information for estimating pressures and threats, while wildlife was included for biodiversity records. The last category (other) was included to allow volunteers to record variables not included in the form. Obtaining this information is essential for a better understanding of the environmental problems of the region. Each option has a series of six consecutive questions, designed to obtain as much georeferenced information as possible. The personal records section (name, sex, age, cell phone number) was set as optional. Geographic coordinates were automatically recorded by the system when a record was obtained. In general, mobile devices presented an error of 5–10 m in GPS reception sensors. This tool can work with and without internet connection, which allows information to be recorded in geographically remote areas.

The reports registered with the Ecodatos form are stored in the ArcGis Online server and can be visualized in near real time through the free access map viewer of the Chiquitano Dry Forest Observatory (https://observatoriochiquitano.org/ accessed on 4 March 2024). In addition, a dashboard was developed with ESRI technology (in Spanish) to visualize the data: https://fcbc.maps.arcgis.com/apps/dashboards/472c4c0a169942909271611713024a1e (accessed on 4 March 2024).

2.3. Training Sites on the Use of Citizen Science Tools

Between the years 2021 and 2023, training meetings were held on the use of a citizen science tool. Despite restrictions due to the COVID-19 health crisis, the training meetings were in presential format and invitations were extended to key stakeholders who were representatives of indigenous communities, water cooperatives, protected area management committees and technical teams of protected areas (national, departmental, municipal), municipalities and civil society (Figure 3). The representatives decided who would be designated to participate in the training. The methodology consisted of a full day of training per site. During the mornings, some of the co-authors (O.M., G.M.) gave oral talks about the environmental problems in the eastern region of Bolivia, with emphasis on deforestation, wildfires and aquatic resources. In addition, the theoretical information from the Ecodatos form, the thematic variables and the purpose of the data collection were presented. During the afternoons, training sessions were conducted with the form using mobile devices and the data obtained were evaluated. At the end of each training meeting, there was space for questions and answers from the attendees, to learn more about their perception of environmental problems and to propose actions.

We carried out 16 training events in 12 locations, situated in the municipalities of Concepción, Roboré, San Matías, San Ignacio, San José de Chiquitos and Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Figure 1,

Table A1. Locations and number of volunteers trained in the eastern region of Bolivia. # Training: number of training meetings per site.

Municipality	Location Type	Site Name	# Training	Women	Men	Total
Concepción	Municipal capital	Concepción	1	6	8	14
Roboré	Municipal capital	Roboré	2	21	42	63
	Community	Santiago de Chiquitos	1	4	2	6
San Matías	Small community	Santo Corazón	1	8	11	19
	Municipal capital	San Matías	1	10	36	46
San Ignacio de Velasco	Municipal capital	San Ignacio	3	14	44	58
	Small community	Piso Firme	1	3	13	16
	Small community	Porvenir	1	1	6	7
	Small community	Ascensión de Macoñó	2	11	29	40
	Small community	San Nicolás del Cerrito	1	19	17	36
San José de Chiquitos	Municipal capital	San José	1	5	10	15
Santa Cruz de la Sierra	Departmental capital	Santa Cruz de la Sierra	1	4	36	40
Total			16	106	254	360

). In the 12 places where the training sessions were held, 360 volunteers participated, 71% of whom were men and 29% were women. The age range was 25 to 60 years old. Ten categories of social groups were identified, of which Chiquitano indigenous leaders had the highest proportion (31%), followed by civil society representatives (26%), park rangers and protected area directors (19%), environmental and water technicians (14%) and students (7%), while the rest of the participants (3%) were represented by forest firefighters and municipal government authorities. The level of education of most of the volunteers was high school and less than ca. 5% had studied at university.

Although the training took place in six municipalities, participants came from nine municipalities located in the Chiquitania region, including the municipality of San Ignacio (38%), followed by Roboré (21%) and San Matías (20%), while the remaining 21% came from the municipalities of San José de Chiquitos, Concepción and Santa Cruz de la Sierra (Table A1). In addition, publicity campaigns were conducted through social networks, radio messages were diffused for months and printed materials were distributed with instructions on how to install the citizen science application. Some volunteer monitors did not have mobile devices and in other cases these were damaged, and therefore 30 devices were handed over under custody.

2.4. Data Processing and Analyses

A review of 647 records obtained between 2021 and 2023 with the ArcGIS Survey123 application was carried out and the reliability of each data point was evaluated. Approximately 5% of the records were obtained by some of the authors (O.M., G.M.). Photographs were used for validation. The nine thematic variables were reclassified and grouped into three clusters: (i) human activities, (ii) water resources and (iii) biodiversity. Other variables could not be grouped and were not considered in the analyses. Within each group, categories and in some cases even subcategories were reassigned (

Table 1. Classification of the thematic variables, clusters, categories and subcategories used in this study.

N	Thematic Variables	Clusters	Categories	Subcategories
1	Wildfires	Human activities	Active wildfires Firefighting Controlled wildfires Burns
2	Deforestation	Human activities	Slash-and-burn (Chaqueos) Small-scale agriculture Mechanized agriculture
3	Mining	Human activities	Mining
4	Unplanned settlement	Human activities	Small-scale agriculture
5	Commercial hunting	Biodiversity	Mammals
6	Road opening	Human activities	Road opening
7	Water bodies	Water resources	Rivers Streams Cattle waterhole Wetlands Lagoons Wells Reservoir of water	Main pressures: Pollution Deforestation Droughts No pressure
8	Wildlife	Biodiversity	Plants Arthropods Reptiles Birds Mammals	Evidence of records: Live Dead Footprints Stool
9	Others	Human activities, Biodiversity or Water resources	Wildfires Deforestation Biodiversity Agriculture	Crops

). Because the information is georeferenced, ArcMap was used to filter the records that were obtained within the boundaries of the Chiquitano Dry Forest, Chaco Seco, Pantanal and Cerrado ecoregions [29]. In addition, a verification of the records that were taken within protected areas was carried out using cartographic information.

2.5. Validation

Of the nine thematic axes, we validated six (forest fires, road opening, unplanned settlements, mining, deforestation and water bodies) using satellite imagery products. We downloaded and used Sentinel-2 satellite imagery, and visually assessed the records using ArcMap 10.8. We found that 84% of the total of these records were true and 16% were false data.

3. Results

3.1. Thematic Variables

A total of 379 records were obtained by volunteers between 2021 and 2023, in the eastern region of Bolivia. It is evident that most of the records were obtained in the first year (n = 245), and except for the data related to water bodies, all records decreased significantly in subsequent years (Figure 4). In 2022, 117 records were obtained and in 2023, only 17 records were obtained (Figure 4). Seasonally, reporting peaks were in February and August, but there were no records in December and January. Proportionally, water bodies (31.75%), wildlife (25.6%), wildfires (11.1%), others (10.8%) and deforestation (10.0%) were the thematic variables with the highest number of records. In addition, it has been identified that 70.4% (n = 267) of the reports were recorded in areas close to communities, while 29.6% (n = 112) were located within the boundaries of protected areas.

3.2. Human Activities

In terms of the cluster of human activities recorded by the volunteers, of the 121 records on human activities, the main percentages were recorded for wildfires (35%) (Figure 5), deforestation (31%, Figure 6), unplanned settlements (16%), road openings (11%) and mining (7%). Regarding fires, the categories of records were active wildfires (55%), followed by controlled wildfires (24%), burns (16%) and firefighting (5%, Figure 6). Seasonally, the main reports for wildfires were made in August (n = 13). A total of 36.4% of the records were made inside the protected areas.

3.3. Water Resources

In the water resources cluster, of the 120 records, the categories of cattle waterholes (30%), streams (17%), wells (16%), rivers (12%), wetlands (11%, Figure 5), lagoons (7%) and water reservoirs (7%) were identified (Figure 7). A total of 23.3% of the records were made inside the protected areas. Most of these sites are important for the local communities as they are a source of water for human consumption and livestock. Seasonally, the highest number of water resource reports was made between March and May. It was also found that 57% are not under pressure, but some of these water resources are under threat from drought (29%), pollution (13%) and deforestation (1%) (Figure 7). One of the notable records was the reported reduction of wetlands in a sector of the Bolivian Pantanal.

3.4. Biodiversity Groups

Figure 8 shows the proportion of reports in terms of taxonomic groups of the biodiversity cluster (n = 97), as well as the evidence of these records. A total of 35.1% of the records were made inside the protected areas. The main reports were for mammals (53%) (Figure 5), followed by reptiles (16%), birds (13%), plants (12%) and arthropods (3%). A total of 59% of the records came from live individuals, but some of these were found dead (23%), and in the case of vertebrates, other records were obtained by footprints (16%) and stools (2%). Among the most notable records obtained were the footprints of the jaguar (Panthera onca), a species of global conservation concern.

4. Discussion

4.1. Involvement and Local Participation

Citizen science involves a broad audience of people in a participatory and voluntary manner in projects that do not necessarily require a background in scientific research [12,33]. Local-level participation in environmental monitoring is key to obtaining the most information at a varied spatial scale, which is important in decision making [34]. During this study, significant efforts were made to involve as many local stakeholders in the eastern region of Bolivia as possible in the presential training, despite restrictions due to the COVID-19 health crisis [35]. The volunteers showed great interest and willingness to carry out the environmental monitoring. In addition, the participation of men and women of different ages and occupations was considered. The results showed that the highest participation was that of men, with 71%. There are different factors that explain the participation of women in the training and data collection. Some of these causes are related to family roles in a cultural context, access to education, economic limitations, the development of family practices in agricultural and livestock economic activities and the customs of local authorities in the invitations to the training, in which mainly men were referred.

The use of technology, particularly mobile applications, is key to facilitating environmental monitoring and citizen participation in conservation efforts in near real time. While the application was disseminated through different media in Bolivia (internet, radio and printed material), the participation of volunteers during face-to-face training was one of the most effective strategies to address environmental challenges. During the workshops, volunteers were shown the different threats and pressures of the ecoregions of eastern Bolivia and the importance of obtaining field data from their local communities and learning how to use the differences between the nine log variables of the application. Although one-on-one guidance was provided at each workshop, we are uncertain whether limitations in technical capabilities affected people’s ability to participate in obtaining records for any of the variables. Nevertheless, the high level of validation shows the importance of the quality of the records.

However, our results show that the highest number of records was during the most critical phase of COVID-19 in Bolivia, but thereafter the number of records decreased. There are several potential causes for the reduction in registrations, some of which are explained in the discussion. Nevertheless, the records obtained are valuable for research related to human activities, water resources and biodiversity in this region. In addition, some of the records obtained were used to make reports to local authorities and to alert public opinion in different media about environmental threats and impacts in the region.

4.2. Human Activities

Citizen science data in combination with remote sensing products are complemented to provide answers to questions related to environmental monitoring, with investigations ranging across biomass measurements [36] or phenological changes in vegetation [37,38], but apparently there are no known studies focused on studying the consequences of human activities. In the eastern region of Bolivia, two of the main consequences of human activities, forest fires and deforestation, have increased in the last two decades [39]. Although this type of information is very risky to collect in the field, due to the conflict that volunteers may have with those who carry out these activities, these were the variables with the highest number of records. In this study, we found that fire was the category with the highest number of records, especially the active wildfires. In 2019, one of the most severe fires registered in Bolivia’s history occurred [40], with a total area of 3.7 million hectares burned throughout the department [41]. In 2020, many of the sites affected in 2019 burned again, [39], summing up to a total area of the equivalent of Switzerland within these two years. In addition, in this study we found that deforestation was the second highest variable obtained by volunteers. Although deforestation in this region has various causes [30], a historical perspective for the department of Santa Cruz between 2010 and 2019 shows that deforestation increased from 4.2 million to 6.2 million hectares [42], with a forest loss equivalent to more than 550 hectares per day. Although the monitoring of human activities can be performed through different remote sensing products at different spatial and temporal scales [43], field assessment is important. The information obtained by the volunteers is important in the sense that this information can help to calibrate processing and classification methodologies, as well as to validate satellite information [44].

4.3. Water Resources

Volunteers collected environmental information in geographic locations that researchers or professionals can rarely reach. The results show that there is a high interest in records of the water resource situation in the eastern region of Bolivia. During training, volunteers commented that between 2019 and 2021, numerous communities experienced water access problems due to reductions in surface water levels (e.g., water reservoirs, wetlands) and groundwater (e.g., water wells), which had a direct impact on the livelihoods and economic activities of the local population. Most of these events have not been properly documented in the scientific literature. Laguna Concepción, a Ramsar site of more than five thousand hectares located in the center of the department of Santa Cruz [45], dried up completely in 2021 [24]. Many of these water resource reductions were likely due to a combination of the series of meteorological droughts of increased severity [46] and land use change in the Chiquitano forest region [47] in recent years. During the collection of information by the volunteers, wetland reduction was reported in the Bolivian Pantanal region, another Ramsar site in Bolivia, which coincides with the drought events recorded in the Paraguay river basin in 2020 [48]. In addition, drought patterns have been identified for the eastern region of Bolivia, with tendencies to increase in frequency and intensity [41]. In this sense, information obtained by local people is fundamental to warn of the water crisis that is occurring in the region and that is poorly or not at all known by the local authorities.

4.4. Biodiversity Groups

Citizen science initiatives have been remarkably successful in advancing scientific knowledge and these contributions provide a wealth of data on the presence and distribution of different species [49]. At the global level, the two most successful citizen science projects focused on biodiversity are eBird [50] and iNaturalist [51], which, through a network of millions of users, have contributed significantly to the knowledge of the occurrence and abundance of thousands of species. In our study, we found that wildlife was the second topic with the highest number of records, but when grouping the clusters, biodiversity records were in third place. The largest number of records obtained by the volunteers was the mammal group and the evidence of these records was mainly from footprints. Among the notable records obtained is the Jaguar (Panthera onca), the largest feline in the Americas, a priority species for global conservation and of special interest to some local stakeholders due to the conflict it represents by attacking cattle and as a result prompting persecutory hunting in Bolivia [52]. Citizen science research allows local stakeholders to be part of the process of finding solutions to human–wildlife conflicts [53]. In addition, local information is important because it allows the identification of connectivity corridors and threats to the habitat of this species [54]. In the results, some cases of animals found dead on the road were reported. Different data on population ecology can be obtained based on roadkill [55]. Volunteers are rarely motivated to collect dead animals, so a geo-referenced photograph can represent an important and very valuable source to identify movement routes, exposure sites and the risk of collision of species at risk in large spatial and temporal scales [56,57] that allow actions to mitigate the impact of roads on wild animal populations. However, one of the main challenges for biodiversity monitoring is the process of identification [58]. The precedent of data publications that turned out to be scientifically false, e.g., [59], is part of the set of arguments for caution for those who develop and apply citizen science in different fields and for different purposes.

4.5. Limitations and Opportunities in Citizen Science

During the study, some challenges and limitations were identified in obtaining local information, which is fundamental to improve the processes of interaction with volunteers. Volunteers tend to register for events that are of special interest or that will be of some benefit. However, in the eastern region of Bolivia, internet coverage in the population centers is low and in rural areas it is generally non-existent [60]. This is one of the reasons why volunteers saved the information on their mobile devices for days or weeks until they had a more secure connection. Sending information using the mobile application also entails an economic cost and during the training it was necessary to support the acquisition of monthly internet packages for cell phones for the volunteers. In addition, some volunteers lacked the appropriate equipment for installing the application due to the version of the Android system or in cases where their cell phones had damaged cameras, so it was decided to provide them with optimal equipment for recording information. During the experience, we learned that volunteers participated in a continuous way by taking information when we interacted individually with each of them. The Survey123 application does not allow interaction with users, and this is something very important that still needs to be improved in the future. The development and implementation of a mobile application to help improve the interaction between users and project managers could help in obtaining more information [61].

Despite the limitations, opportunities for the implementation of a citizen science tool in building sustainable environmental governance in Bolivia are evident. The results of this study are helping to assess the implications of citizen science in the eastern region and the lessons learned are critical to explore the potential for knowledge sharing and collaboration on a larger scale across the country, especially for monitoring critical ecosystems. In addition, the results allow us to identify strategies for disseminating information to different local stakeholders and civil society using non-technical language or approaches. However, the long-term sustainability of the coordination links established through user interaction and their impact on local capacities for environmental monitoring still need to be assessed.

4.6. Final Considerations

In relation to the fields of environmental sciences and ecology, six stages of the design and implementation of a citizen science project have been described, ranging from the identification of the need or problem, determining of the right approach, design, building of the community, managing the data and evaluating the project [5]. Based on the experience obtained in the eastern region of Bolivia, we observe that future studies with a citizen science focus should consider the following points: (1) the question and the objective to be achieved should be very clear from the beginning, (2) the time of the process and the quality of data to be obtained should be established in advance, (3) the definition of methodology for the validation and verification of data is key for the later use of the information, (4) given that it is a group of volunteers, there must be clear leadership in the process that motivates and provides permanent feedback and (5) the goals of the study must be in tune with local expectations, needs and interests; if the benefits are not clear, the level of involvement, motivation and response will be low. Finally, participants should have the risks of collecting information when visiting specific sites and how to avoid them explained to them [5], especially in the recording of issues related to deforestation, mining, unplanned settlement and road opening.

5. Conclusions

This is the first experience of using a citizen science tool in the process of building sustainable environmental governance in Bolivia. Although there are several limitations for volunteers to obtain information (internet coverage, cost of sending information, inadequate devices, etc.), the opportunities to generate social change and strengthen the capacities of local communities are even greater. The experience of this study has made it possible to evaluate the information collection process and determine the main variables that are of greatest interest to the communities. We identified that water bodies and wildlife were the thematic variables with the highest number of records.

The participation of appropriately trained volunteers in the monitoring of social–ecological systems is undoubtedly one of the most efficient strategies to complement other types of actions and to provide updated information, first-hand and almost in real time, on different environmental problems at different spatial and temporal scales. In this sense, mobile applications can be a means to reach a wide geographic scale in a short time. In addition, this interaction with users allows the creation of coordination links that, in the long run, translate into the strengthening of local capacities in environmental monitoring in a given territory. These actions are important to maintain the ecological integrity of the landscape. Exposing the results obtained with citizen science encourages the actions to be replicated, in addition to strengthening collaborative science as a means of new knowledge to understand various dimensions of the socio-environmental problems of the eastern region of Bolivia. Future research should focus on developing an environmental governance mechanism that allows the information obtained to be used by local stakeholders to plan and implement conservation actions in this threatened region.