Towards a Sustainable Mining: Reuse of Slate Stone Cutting Sludges for New Geopolymer Binders
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Raw Materials
2.1.1. Slate Stone Cutting Sludge from La Cabrera Baja (Leon, Spain)
2.1.2. Alkali Activation Solution: Sodium Hydroxide and Sodium Silicate
2.1.3. Methodology
2.1.4. Chemical and Physical Characterization of SSCS from La Cabrera
2.1.5. Preparation of SSCS–Alkali Activation Solution Geopolymer Samples
3. Results
3.1. Physical and Chemical Characterization Test Results of the SSCS
3.1.1. Elemental Analysis
3.1.2. X-ray Fluorescence
3.1.3. X-ray Diffraction
3.1.4. Particle Size Distribution
3.1.5. Density
3.1.6. pH Determination
3.1.7. Moisture Determination Test
3.2. Physical and Mechanical Characterization Tests of Geopolymer Samples Using SSCS
3.2.1. Mass Loss Determination
3.2.2. Linear Shrinkage Determination
3.2.3. Capillary Water Absorption Determination
3.2.4. Cold Water Absorption of the SSCS Geopolymers
3.2.5. Open Porosity of the SSCS Geopolymers
3.2.6. Bulk Density Determination
3.2.7. Compression Strength Test Results of the SSCS Geopolymer
3.2.8. FTIR of the SSCS Geopolymer
3.2.9. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDX) Analysis of SSCS
4. Conclusions
- The particle size distribution of SSCS shows that this mining sludge is composed of finer particles; therefore, crushing operations are not required for this experiment. This particle size distribution guarantees the geopolymerization because smaller particle size increases the specific surface, and therefore its reactivity.
- The chemical composition of SSCS demonstrated low values of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, as well as no presence of organic material that could jeopardize the geopolymerization process.
- The X-ray fluorescence showed percentages of silica and alumina, 50.75 and 22.18 wt.%, respectively, and low content of carbonates, less than 1.81 wt.%, making this mining raw material a potential source of aluminosilicates.
- SSCS material, with a density of 2.12 g/cm3 and pH value of 8.53, did not show rejection with alkali activator solution during the geopolymer conformation phase.
- After the completion of physical tests performed on the different SSCS geopolymer samples with alkali activator ratios (1, 1.25, 1.66, 2.5, and 5), we observed that the ratio of alkali activation solution constitutes an important role in the final properties of the geopolymer.
- The obtained values of mass loss, linear shrinkage, capillary water absorption, cold water absorption, and open porosity of the different geopolymer samples conformed in the experiment showed that that geopolymers with a lower ratio of alkali solution led to greater values up to a 2.5 ratio. This is caused by a better geopolymerization process, leading to a denser internal structure because of a less interconnection between pores.
- Bulk density and compressive strength values showed that when the Na2SiO3/NaOH ratio increases, both values increase up to a maximum value of 2.5. From this ratio, compressive strength and density tend to decrease due to an excess of alkali activation solution, producing a retardation of the geopolymerization process and leading to a geopolymer that is not fully reacted.
- The compressive strength test served to show that an increase in alkaline activation ratio in the SSCS geopolymers increased the compressive strength of the geopolymer up to a maximum of 2.5 ratio, with a value of 27.23 MPa, after which it decreased. Higher proportions of NaOH in the alkali activator ratio resulted in lower compressive strength values.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sample Series Code | Solid (g) | Alkaline Activator Solution (g) | Na2SiO3/NaOH Weight Ratio |
---|---|---|---|
G50/10 | 240 | 192 | 5.00 |
G50/20 | 240 | 168 | 2.50 |
G50/30 | 240 | 144 | 1.66 |
G50/40 | 240 | 120 | 1.25 |
G50/50 | 240 | 96 | 1.00 |
Sample | Nitrogen, % | Carbon, % | Hydrogen, % |
---|---|---|---|
SSCS * | 0.104 ± 0.003 | 1.003 ± 0.057 | 0.337 ± 0.002 |
Element | Wt.% | Est. Error |
---|---|---|
SiO2 | 50.75 | 0.38 |
Al2O3 | 22.18 | 0.18 |
CaO | 0.456 | 0.03 |
Fe2O3 | 10.68 | 0.22 |
K2O | 4.63 | 0.17 |
MgO | 2.68 | 0.18 |
TiO2 | 1.28 | 1.28 |
Na2O | 1.24 | 0.12 |
SO3 | 0.50 | 0.03 |
P2O5 | 0.28 | 0.01 |
LOI 1 | 5.02 | - |
Phase | Formula | wt.% |
---|---|---|
Q: Quartz | SiO2 | 16.5 ± 0.5 |
M: Muscovite | Kal2 (AlSi3O10)(OH)2 | 25.4 ± 0.8 |
C: Chlorite | (Mg,Al)6(Si,Al)4º10(OH)8 | 26.7 ± 0.9 |
A: Albite | NaAlSiO3 | 7.8 ± 0.6 |
Sample | pH | Temp. (°C) |
---|---|---|
SSCS 1 | 8.55 | 24.8 |
SSCS 2 | 8.53 | 24.5 |
SSCS 3 | 8.51 | 24.4 |
Average | 8.53 | 24.5 |
Sample | WM (%) |
---|---|
SSCS 1 | 0.89 |
SSCS 2 | 0.93 |
SSCS 3 | 0.87 |
Function Group | Wavenumber Range (cm−1) | FTIR Peaks (cm−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Alkaline activator ratio | 1.25 | 1.66 | 2.50 | |
Stretching vibration O-H | 3300–3700 | 3370 | 3364 | 3265 |
Bending vibration H-O-H | 1622–1658 | 1654 | 1652 | 1654 |
Asymmetric stretching vibration O-C-O | 1432–1412 | 1442 | 1445 | 1444 |
Asymmetric stretching vibration Si-O-T | 1200–830 | 827 | 826 | 829 |
Bending symmetric stretching vibration Si-O-Si | 800–700 | 750 | 747 | 750 |
Bending symmetrical Si-O of SiO4 | 694 | 670 | 672 | 672 |
Bending vibration Si-O-Si | 400–500 | 467 | 468 | 464 |
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Carrillo Beltrán, R.; Picazo Camilo, E.; Perea Toledo, G.; Corpas Iglesias, F.A. Towards a Sustainable Mining: Reuse of Slate Stone Cutting Sludges for New Geopolymer Binders. Sustainability 2024, 16, 3322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083322
Carrillo Beltrán R, Picazo Camilo E, Perea Toledo G, Corpas Iglesias FA. Towards a Sustainable Mining: Reuse of Slate Stone Cutting Sludges for New Geopolymer Binders. Sustainability. 2024; 16(8):3322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083322
Chicago/Turabian StyleCarrillo Beltrán, Raúl, Elena Picazo Camilo, Griselda Perea Toledo, and Francisco Antonio Corpas Iglesias. 2024. "Towards a Sustainable Mining: Reuse of Slate Stone Cutting Sludges for New Geopolymer Binders" Sustainability 16, no. 8: 3322. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16083322