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Article

Activated Carbon from Selected Wood-Based Waste Materials

by
Małgorzata Kajda-Szcześniak
1,
Anna Mainka
2,*,
Waldemar Ścierski
1,
Mirosława Pawlyta
3,
Dariusz Łukowiec
3,
Krzysztof Matus
3,
Kalina Turyła
4,
Daniel Lot
4,
Weronika Barańska
4 and
Anna Jabłońska
4
1
Department of Technologies and Installations for Waste Management, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 18 Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
2
Department of Air Protection, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 22B Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
3
Materials Research Laboratory, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 18A Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
4
Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology, 18 Konarskiego St., 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2025, 17(7), 2995; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17072995
Submission received: 14 February 2025 / Revised: 17 March 2025 / Accepted: 25 March 2025 / Published: 27 March 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Materials and Technologies for Environmental Sustainability)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Extended producer responsibility (EPR) and the circular economy can address the growing challenge of managing wood-based waste in the context of sustainability. This research explores pyrolysis as an effective method for converting wood-based waste, i.e., bamboo flooring (BF) and high-density fiberboard floor panels (HDF), into valuable products, particularly char. Char samples were activated through two distinct methods: (1) thermal activation at 700 and 850 °C and (2) chemical activation with KOH. Analytical techniques, including elemental and heavy metals analysis, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, SEM, and TEM were used to assess the chemical composition and surface characteristics of the produced chars. Elemental analysis showed a notable rise in the amount of carbon to 81% and 75% in BF and HDF, respectively. The nitrogen content was relatively high in HDF at 5.12%. Heavy metals analysis revealed total metal contents ranging from 3632 to 9494 ppm in BF chars and 1717 to 7426 ppm in HDF chars. Raman spectra exhibited characteristic D and G bands, with ID/IG ratios of 0.83 for BF and 0.85 for HDF after activation. SEM and TEM analyses revealed heterogeneous porous structures with dominant carbon elements. The high carbon content, low toxicity, and advantageous elemental composition of the chars make them suitable for environmental applications.

1. Introduction

Wood is a widely used raw material in various industries due to its renewable nature, versatility, and unique structural properties. As a natural biomass composite, it exhibits excellent mechanical characteristics, lightweight design, and a porous, anisotropic structure [1]. These properties make wood a valuable resource in construction, furniture production, and energy generation. Additionally, raw wood is commonly utilized for biochar production, offering an environmentally friendly solution for carbon sequestration and pollution mitigation [2]. Given increasing industrialization and population growth, the sustainable use of wood and its derivatives plays a crucial role in addressing global energy and environmental challenges. However, despite its renewable nature, a significant amount of wood-based materials go to waste each year. Every year in the European Union, approximately 10 million tons of furniture are discarded by households and businesses [3], a slightly lower quantity of 8.5 million m3 is wasted in China [4], while in the United States wood waste has reached 18 million tons [5]. According to a report by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), of these 18 million tons, 3.1 million tons were recycled, 2.8 million tons were burned to produce energy, and 12.1 million tons (2/3) ended up in landfill [6].
Whilst recycling rates in the EU have improved through the introduction of policy mechanisms such as the Landfill Directive and its diversion objectives [7], there is minimal recycling activity of furniture and wood-based materials. The majority is burnt in an incinerator or buried in landfill. Among wood-based materials, the disposal of medium-density (MDF) and high-density fiberboards (HDF) is particularly problematic as they contain hazardous adhesives. Because of their low fabrication costs, quick curing rates, light colors, and non-flammability, adhesives like urea-formaldehyde (UF-resin) and phenol-formaldehyde are frequently utilized in the furniture and wood processing industries [8,9]. Although they are more expensive than UF-resin, other adhesives like phenolic, melamine, and isocyanates are also utilized. Humans are at risk from these substances, which can cause cancer and irritation of the nose, eyes, skin, and throat [10]. Additionally, these fiberboards undergo additional processing to make them water-resistant by applying paints and waxes that contain a complex blend of binders, pigments, and chemicals. Furthermore, flame retardants, which have been linked to harmful health consequences such neurotoxicity, cancer, and reproductive toxicity, are added to fiberboards for fire protection [11,12].
Since they increase emissions of greenhouse gases and pollutants including NOx, SO2, and leachate, landfilling and combustion should be avoided. It is evident that these two methods are becoming less and less feasible for getting rid of materials made of wood [6]. Given that the take–make–dispose linear economy is currently transforming to a circular economy, with Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) serving as a key instrument that promotes the implementation of the circular economy under EU waste law and policy [13], exploration of technologies to effectively recycle wood-based waste, whose life, due to weak product design and specification drivers, cannot be prolonged, is crucial. Biomass conversion technologies offer promising avenues for recycling wood-based processing and furniture waste into valuable products [14]. Thermal decomposition methods include processes such as torrefaction [15], hydrothermal carbonization [16], gasification [17], and slow and fast pyrolysis [18,19], depending on the properties of the material and the application of the products obtained [20]. Among the enumerated methods, pyrolysis is one popular commercial method for the production of charcoal from wood [21]. Poskart et al. [22] have extensively researched the use of the pyrolysis process for the management of biomass waste, while Ayiania et al. [23] pointed to pyrolysis as an effective way to process discarded furniture materials. In an inert or oxygen-limited atmosphere, pyrolysis is a rather easy, affordable, and reliable thermochemical process that turns biomass and/or wood waste into char, pyrolysis oil, and syngas [6]. Slow and rapid pyrolysis can be separated based on the heating rate of the fuel particles (biomass or waste), whereas low-temperature pyrolysis up to 600 °C and high-temperature pyrolysis up to 1000 °C are distinguished based on the temperature utilized. The slow pyrolysis process is called carbonization. The substrate (waste) is heated slowly over a longer period of time, with no access to oxygen and a relatively low temperature of about 400 °C, and char is the dominant product of slow pyrolysis [24,25,26].
Char, also known as charcoal, is a material with significant applications in environmental and agricultural management, as well as a potential tool for carbon sequestration [27]. It is a porous, carbon-rich substance made by thermochemically converting organic molecules in an oxygen-limited setting [28,29]. In recent years, char has garnered considerable attention within both political and academic spheres due to its potential to sequester carbon, serve as a soil amendment, enhance soil aggregation, and improve water-holding capacity and organic matter content [30,31]. Application of char to soil can, therefore, lead to improved crop yields and reduced nutrient losses through leaching [32]. Additionally, char can function as a long-term carbon sink, remaining in the soil for over a century [30]. It has also been recognized as an effective sorbent for the removal of aqueous chemical contaminants, including trace metals and organic compounds [33,34].
The lack of knowledge on the properties of the final char and the possible presence of environmental contaminants on the surface or inside the char’s structure are two of the primary barriers to processing wood-based waste for the manufacture of char. Char’s elemental composition and amounts are unclear; however, they are most likely related to the original feedstock, manufacturing temperatures, and activation procedures.
The aim of this research is to explore the potential of chars derived from wood-based waste materials, from HDF floor panels and bamboo flooring, obtained during apartment renovation. Given the wide applications of chars in the adsorption of heavy metals [35,36,37], dyes [38], and CO2 [39,40,41], as well as in catalysis [42,43], desalination [44,45], and electromagnetic interference shielding [46,47], and making supercapacitors [48,49], battery electrodes [50,51], and solar photothermal energy converters [52,53], this study focuses on the preparation and comprehensive characterization of chars. By employing elemental and heavy metals analysis, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy, along with scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM), we aim to gain insights into the chemical, structural, and surface properties of the produced chars. Research demonstrates that it is possible to produce activated carbon from waste substances originating from the wood industry. The article presents the results of research into two waste materials with different properties: bamboo flooring (BF) and high-density fibreboard (HDF). The obtained results allow us to state that it is possible to produce activated carbon from waste substances, which will have acceptable properties for environmental applications. The economic aspect should also be mentioned here—when producing activated carbon from pure wood biomass, the input for production is one of the production costs. For the production of activated carbon from the presented waste, additional fees can be charged for their processing, thanks to which it is possible to offer a final product at a lower price. This research not only addresses the environmental aspect of waste management but also explores sustainable options for developing materials that support large-scale purification processes, energy conversion, and energy storage applications.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Material Preparation

Two types of wood waste were analyzed: bamboo flooring (BF) and fiberboards (HDF). BF is characterized by a solid structure with a lacquered coating. HDF is a wood fiberboard characterized by high hardness and increased density, containing a urea-formldehyde resin binder. The samples, in the form of floorboards, were obtained from the renovation of houses and apartments (were new post-installation waste) and were not contaminated by other waste fractions. The material was ground in a Trymet T45.5SW (Trymet LLC, Pilchowo, Poland) mill to a <20 mm fraction (Figure S1).

2.2. Pyrolysis and Activation Procedure

The slow pyrolysis process was conducted in a stainless-steel chamber with a volume of 25 dm3 connected to a gas cooler made from DN 25 piping with a length of 1000 mm. The system was heated using an electric furnace at a controlled rate of 5 °C /min (the apparatus schematic is shown in Figure S2). For each slow pyrolysis experiment, 1000 g of wood-based waste was loosely packed in the chamber at ambient temperature. The process was duplicated. Next, the chamber was closed to cut off the air supply, and a heating process was activated. Once the pyrolysis process had begun inside the chamber, the gas pressure increased above atmospheric pressure. The increase in pressure allowed the pyrolysis gas to flow through the cooler-separator system. The heating process of the chamber was terminated when the temperature inside reached 425 °C. The process temperature was determined on the basis of a previously conducted study of the pyrolysis process using thermogravimetric analysis (TG/DTG) [54]. The method of determining specific parameters of the pyrolysis process has been described in other publications by the authors listed in references [24,54]. It considers research using a thermogravimeter [54], our own research for various waste substances [24], and the economic aspect (defining the lowest possible process temperature for which the char can be obtained as a substrate for the activation procedure). The pyrolysis process took about eighty minutes. In the cooler, the temperature of the pyrolytic gas was reduced to ambient temperature. At the same time, the pyrolytic oil accumulated in the separator was collected from the cooler. The pyrolytic gas was removed to the atmosphere through the gas purification system. The pyrolysis process was concluded when gas generation ended. The produced char was retrieved directly from the pyrolytic chamber after cooling to ambient temperature. Two types of char were produced: bamboo flooring (designated BF-C) and HDF fiberboards (designated HDF-C). For BF, 1000 g yields 346 g of activated carbon, accounting for approximately 35% of the input, while for HDF, it yields 334 g, representing approximately 33% of the input. These materials were ground into fractions smaller than 2 mm using a laboratory mill (IKA, Staufen im Breisgau, Germany) prior to further testing.

2.3. Activation Process

Char samples were activated through two distinct methods: (1) thermal activation and (2) chemical activation. In the first case, BF-C and HDF-C chars underwent thermal activation at 700 and 850 °C in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide (CO2), designated as BF-C700 and HDF-C700, as well as BF-C850 and HDF-C850, respectively. The temperature, flow rate, and activation time were selected based on a literature review [23,55,56] and preliminary verification tests. Activation was performed with a CO2 gas flow rate of 15 dm3/h for 15 min. The activation device consisted of an inert gas inlet, a tube furnace and a gas condenser (see Figure S3 for the activation procedure).
In the second case, chemical activation of the primary chars, i.e., BF-C and HDF-C, was carried out by 2 M KOH in a mass ratio of 1:5. The prepared blend reacted during 24 h and was then dried at 105 °C to a constant weight. Subsequently, the activation process consisted of heating the mixture at 700 °C in a CO2 atmosphere (flow rate of 15 dm3/h) for 15 min. The temperature was selected on the basis of a literature review [57,58] and our own research, which showed that the activated carbon yield is lower at activation temperatures > 700 °C because KOH may catalyze the oxidation reactions [59]. The samples obtained were designated as BF-C700KOH and HDF-C700KOH. After the activation process, the product was cooled and then washed with 5% HCl and demineralized water until the pH of the leached solution was neutral. The final product was dried at 105 °C.
Chemical activation with alkaline reagents is widely used due to the achievement of materials with a large surface area and a certain distribution of micropore sizes [57,58]. Among the activating agents, potassium hydroxide, with the chemical formula KOH, is one of the most widely used activation agents for the production of low-cost activated carbon from materials such as agricultural residues and food waste [60,61]. Numerous studies [60,62,63] point out that KOH activation produces porous carbons with a higher micropore volume than sodium hydroxide (NaOH) does. Its distribution of fine pore size under the same conditions, low environmental pollution, less corrosiveness, and lower cost are emphasized by Heidarinejad et al. [64]. According to Liu et al. [65], a certain amount of potassium can intercalate into the carbon structure or remain as part of the sorbent in the form of quasi-chemically bound potassium–oxygen functions. In the KOH activation process, the main reaction proceeds according to reaction (1) [55]:
4KOH + C → K2CO3 + K2O + 2H2↑
The mechanism of activation can be described by reactions (2)–(5) [56,57]:
2KOH → K2O + H2O↑
C + H2O → CO↑ + H2↑
CO + H2O = H2 + CO2
K2O + CO2 → K2CO3
Both activation methods have their strengths and weaknesses. The physical activation process is much more time consuming than the chemical process. Moreover, the pore size and porosity are very difficult to control in the physical activation process. Therefore, chemical activation has become the prevailing technique for making activated carbons. Thermal activation is generally more cost-effective for large-scale production because it eliminates the need for expensive chemicals. However, its higher energy requirements can be a drawback. Chemical activation, meanwhile, involves significant chemical costs, waste management expenses, and post-treatment costs, making it more expensive overall. Thermal activation is generally more environmentally friendly because it does not require hazardous chemicals and produces less wastewater and solid waste. However, its higher energy consumption can contribute to CO2 emissions unless renewable energy sources are used. On the other hand, chemical activation has a higher environmental impact due to chemical residues, water pollution, and waste disposal issues. However, if proper waste treatment and chemical recovery systems are in place, its impact can be reduced [55,57,66].

2.4. Physicochemical Analysis of Waste and Chars

The primary tests were conducted with the application of the following standards [67,68,69,70,71,72,73].

2.5. Heavy Metals

Prior to the quantitative analysis of metals, all char samples before (BF-C and HDF-C) and after activation (BF-C700, BF-C850, BF-C700KOH, and HDF-C700, HDF-C850, HDF-C700KOH) were mineralized using a Kjeldahl DKL series block mineralizer with an automatic elevator (VELP Scientifica manufacturer, Usmate, Italy). Samples weighing 0.25 g were mineralized at high temperature (maximum temperature 420 °C) in a mixture of concentrated (p.a.) sulfuric acid H2SO4 (10 cm3) and a catalyst mixture (1.5 g) until a clear liquid was obtained. The mineralization products were put into a 100 cm3 measuring flask, and un-ionized water (1.002 µS/cm) was added to complete the flask volume. These solutions were filtered using the DigiFILTER system, (PerkinElmer, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA; 0.45 µm). Metals including cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) were analyzed via atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) with an acetylene-air flame Avanta PM and a graphite furnace Avanta GM (GBC Scientific Equipment Pty Ltd., Melbourne, Australia) using the method described elsewhere [74,75]. Standard solutions of the trace elements, which were acquired from Merck in Germany, were used to assess the calibration curves for quantification. A standard dilution of 1000 mg/L (CeriPUR®, Rochester MI, USA) was used to create solutions with varying concentrations.

2.6. ATR-FTIR and Raman Spectroscopic Analysis

ATR-FTIR spectroscopic analysis (FTIR—Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy; ATR—Attenuated Total Reflectance) was used to measure infrared spectra and analyze the composition of carbonates before and after thermal and chemical activation. The application of FTIR spectroscopy for the characterization of chars is commonly used in conjunction with other spectroscopic methods, including ATR [76]. A series of measurements of infrared spectra by the ATR technique were performed on a Bruker FTIR TENSORII spectrometer with the following spectrometer operating parameters: diamond crystal ATR attachment, measuring range: 400–4000 cm−1 with a resolution of 4 cm−2.
Raman measurements were carried out using a Raman microspectrometer in Via Reflex Raman Spectrometer from Renishaw (Miskin, UK). Raman spectroscopy combines surface selectivity and exceptional sensitivity to the degree of structural ordering. It is believed to be one method for studying the structural quality of a carbon material (such as chars) [77]. The spectra of Micro-Raman spectroscopy consist of different bands.

2.7. Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopy

Microscopic studies were carried out using scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM, respectively), along with the preparation of the experimental samples. The SEM analysis shows the micromorphology’s characteristics and the chemical composition of the char. SEM analysis is helpful from an application standpoint in comprehending the material’s structure and verifying if pores are indeed generated in the substance [78]. TEM is highly regarded for its ability to provide detailed information on the size, morphology, composition, crystallinity, and electronic state of a sample, all with exceptional spatial resolution. Due to the requirement for a thin specimen, specialized sample preparation methods, such as ultra-microtomy, ion milling, or electro-polishing, are occasionally necessary. In addition, small particles, fines, and colloidal suspensions are frequently dispersed onto TEM grids for analysis [55,79,80].
The microstructure of the char and the chemical composition were studied by SEM using a high-resolution SUPRA 35 (ZEISS, Oberkochen, Germany). Meanwhile, the inner structure of the activated chars consisting of thin carbon sheets was analyzed by an S/TEM Titan 80–300 electron microscope (FEI, Hillsboro, OR, USA), equipped with a STEM scanning system; BF, DF, and HAADF scanning-transmission detectors; a Cs condenser spherical aberration corrector; an EDS energy dispersive spectrometer; and an X-FEG high-brightness electron gun.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Elemental Analysis

Table 1 shows the elemental and fuel analysis of the tested substrates and chars. The pyrolysis process from 1000 g of wood-based waste yielded 346 g of BF-C, while HDF produced 334 g of HDF-C. The observed weight loss is attributed to the evaporation of volatile components. The volatile content decreased from 72.81% in BF to 22.54% in BF-C and from 77.09% in HDF to 19.81% in HDF-C. The initial carbon content of the substrates exceeded 45% for HDF and 49% for BF. Following pyrolysis, the elemental carbon content increased to 75% for HDF-C and 81% for BF-C. According to the findings reported by [81], the increase in carbon content in the biochar is due to the reduction in substrate mass and the removal of oxygen. In our study, the oxygen content decreased from 36.35% to 6.70% in BF-C and from 38.55 to 8.99% in HDF-C. Similar results were obtained by [82], where the carbon content of char samples produced at different temperatures ranged from 83.5% to 87.6%, with low hydrogen (0.9–3.0%) and oxygen (8.0–10.0%) levels. In our samples, both substrates and chars exhibited low sulfur and chlorine contents. Notably, the nitrogen content in HDF was relatively high, at 4.88%, increasing to 5.12% in HDF-C. This elevated nitrogen content can be attributed to the use of urea-formaldehyde resin in the production of HDF [83,84].
Physically or chemically activated chars exhibit significant differences in carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) content, which result from the impact of the activation process on the elemental composition of the material. The carbon content is significantly higher in carbonized samples before chemical activation. For BF-C700 and HDF-C700, it is 85.40% and 79.20%, respectively, indicating a high degree of carbonization. After chemical activation with KOH, the carbon content drastically decreases to 40.40% (BF-C700KOH) and 39.70% (HDF-C700KOH). The reduction in carbon content is due to intensive oxidation and structural erosion caused by KOH, which leads to the removal of part of the carbon in the form of volatile products. The nitrogen content varies significantly between samples derived from different feedstocks. In the case of BF-C700, the nitrogen content is 0.68%, whereas HDF-C700 exhibits a higher nitrogen content (5.16%), confirming differences in the composition of the raw materials (Table 1). Chemical activation reduces the nitrogen content in BF-C700KOH and HDF-C700KOH, and these values decrease to 0.21% and 2.84%, respectively. The KOH activation process leads to the partial degradation of nitrogen-containing groups and their release as gaseous products, resulting in a lower nitrogen content in the final material.
According to D. Xu et al. [82], the N content of biocarbon samples prepared from fiberboard is 3.2–3.5%, which appears to be higher than in biocarbon samples derived from other biomass feedstocks [77]. As the carbon element content increases, there is also an increase in calorific value, from 15.18 MJ/kg for BF to 25.59 MJ/kg for BF-C, and from 18.58 MJ/kg for HDF to 24.17 MJ/kg for HDF-C. This can be attributed to the presence of urea-containing glue in the fiberboard. Another phenomenon is that, as the pyrolysis temperature increases, the C content increases slightly, while the H and O contents decrease.

3.2. Heavy Metals Analysis

The total metal content (Table 2) of the bamboo floor char samples ranged from 3632 to 9494 ppm, corresponding to a content of 0.36 to 0.95%, while the floor panel chars contained 1717 to 7426 ppm, corresponding to a content of 0.17 to 0.74%. Non-activated chars from bamboo flooring (BF-C) as well as chars after activation at 700 °C (BF-C700) had higher metal contents than analogous chars from floor panels (HDF-C and HDF-C700). The total metal content of the chars before activation was 8241 ppm and 1717 ppm for BF-C and HDF-C, respectively.
Comparing chars in terms of performed thermal activation, we noted that BF had a lower metal content at a higher activation temperature, i.e., 850 °C. However, the lowest metal content was found for activation at 700 °C using KOH. In comparison, chars from HDF after activation had a three-to-four-times higher total metal content than chars without activation (0.17%). However, the chars after thermal activation together with KOH showed the lowest metal content.
Among the analyzed metals, the highest concentrations were found for copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn), elements that do not belong to the group of carcinogenic or potentially carcinogenic compounds. The Cu and Zn contents of the analyzed chars (697–3515 ppm and 201–2770 ppm) exceed those of teak (390–410 ppm and 270–330 ppm, respectively) and mahogany (930–1010 ppm and 560–710 ppm, respectively). Chars from bamboo flooring and HDF panels have lower Fe content than those from mahogany (2.3–6.7%) and teak (0.8–0.9%) and comparable Mn content (890–1210 ppm) [85]. In contrast, chars produced from the stem and bark of the umbrella tree have Fe contents of 241 and 4736 ppm, respectively, while Mn contents are 40 and 221 ppm, respectively [25]. In comparison, in chars produced from furniture waste and plywood, the cadmium (Cd) content is 5.1 and 1.5 ppm, while for lead (Pb), it is 4.6 and 4.9 ppm, respectively [23].
The lower decrease in Ni content in BF after both physical (thermal) and chemical (KOH) activation, compared to HDF, suggests that nickel is bound in a more stable form within the bamboo floor (BF) char matrix. A similar trend is observed for Cu, where leaching was effective but not complete, especially in BF. This could be due to several factors related to metal binding mechanisms and the structural composition of BF-derived char. (1) Nickel may be strongly incorporated into silicate structures within the biomass, forming stable Ni-Si or Ni-O bonds that are resistant to thermal decomposition and chemical leaching [86]. (2) Organic precursors in bamboo, rich in lignin and hemicellulose, may form Ni-organic complexes that are more resistant to desorption, even under alkaline treatment [87]. (3) Ni in BF can form metallic clusters or metal–carbon complexes that are highly stable and less reactive to chemical leaching; in contrast, Ni in HDF might be more loosely bound, possibly as surface-adsorbed ions or in a different mineral phase that is more susceptible to volatilization or dissolution. (4) Copper is known to form highly stable oxides (CuO, Cu2O) during pyrolysis, particularly in biomass-derived chars [88]. (5) In lignocellulosic materials like bamboo, Cu can be bound to functional groups (e.g., carboxyl, phenolic groups from lignin) that persist after pyrolysis, making it less available for desorption [89]. (6) KOH treatment is known to leach certain metals efficiently, but Cu oxides and Cu-organic complexes might not be fully soluble under these conditions [90].
The lower content of non-cancerogenic metals, as well as the lack of risk from toxic and carcinogenic metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, and Pb) for HDF panel samples without activation, as well as after applying activation at 850 °C for both samples, was observed. A low metal content of below 1% in both materials indicates their potential use, for example, in adsorptive water purification processes, as well as as an additive to soils, since they meet the permissible contents in organic fertilizers, which are Cr—100 ppm, Cd—5 ppm, Ni—60 ppm, and Pb—140 ppm [91].

3.3. FTIR Spectroscopy

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) was used to identify a few distinctive functional groups that may adsorb contaminants. ATR spectra are shown in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Figure 1 shows the ATR spectrum for the BF-C char. Peaks with frequencies of 1588 cm−1 corresponding to C=C stretching vibrations originating from O=C-C=C groups can be observed. Peaks with frequencies of 1435 cm−1 are in-plane deformation vibrations originating from CH2 groups and asymmetric deformation vibrations of CH3 groups. Peaks with frequencies of 1261 cm−1 and 1192 cm−1 are skeletal stretching vibrations originating from C-C bonds in (CH3)C groups. In contrast, the peak at 747 cm−1 corresponds to vibrations originating from –(CH2)n- groups.
For sample BF-C850 (Figure 1), there were no visible characteristic peaks. This may indicate that the sample is in the form of pure carbon, on the surface of which there are no or rarely any functional groups.
Two weak bands are visible on the spectrum measured for sample BF-C700 (Figure 1), suggesting that unsaturated hydrocarbons may be present in the sample. The first band at 1568 cm−1 indicates the presence of C=C bonds, while the second band at 1142 cm−1 indicates the presence of C-H vibrations.
For sample BF-C700KOH (Figure 1), an additional band of about 1243 cm−1 was observed, which may originate from N-H amide vibrations or carbon–halogen (Cl, I, F) vibrations.
Figure 2 refers to the HDF-C char. It shows peaks with frequencies of 1585 cm−1 and 1435 cm−1, which are in-plane deformation vibrations from CH2 groups and asymmetric deformation vibrations of CH3 groups. The peak with a frequency of 1370 cm−1 is the deformation vibration of symmetric CH3 groups. On the other hand, the peak with a frequency of 750 cm−1 is the vibration coming from the –(CH2)n- groups.
Figure 2 shows the spectrum for the HDF-C850 sample. It shows peaks at frequencies of 1557 cm−1, which are mainly from C=C bond vibrations. The peaks with frequencies of 1066 cm−1 and 1018 cm−1 come from vibrations of C-C backbone bonds. Their position depends on the length of the carbon chain. Peaks in the range of 500–600 cm−1 may come from vibrations of C-C-H, C=CH bonds.
The spectrum measured for the HDF-C700 sample (Figure 2) shows peaks at frequencies of 1545 cm−1 coming mainly from C=C bond vibrations, and peaks at 1129 and 1025 cm−1 coming from C-C backbone bond vibrations. Their position depends on the length of the carbon chain. These bands may also originate from C-C bond vibrations in the aromatic ring.
An additional band around 1800 cm−1 appears on the spectrum measured for HDF-C700KOH (Figure 2), which indicates the presence of C=O groups in the acid anhydride systems. The results are similar to the study by [78], who found peaks at 1053 cm−1, 1100 cm−1, and 1590 cm−1, indicating, among other things, the presence of C-OH, C = C, and -OH groups.
Also, in works [78,92], identical peaks of 750 cm−1; 1066 cm−1; 1370 cm−1; 1557 cm−1; 1585 cm−1; and 1800 cm−1 can be identified. Examples of functional groups for pine needle biochar and bamboo leaf biochar associated with FTIR spectra are shown in Table S1 [92]. The researched wood waste chars have similar aromatic and aliphatic functional groups and similar chemical groups, as shown in the chars researched by [78,92].

3.4. Raman Spectroscopy

In the Raman spectra, the peaks around 1350 cm−1 and 1580 cm−1 correspond to the two main bands of D and G, respectively, which represent the highly ordered defect large aromatic ring structures, which contain no less than six fused rings, and bond stretching of pairs of sp2 atoms in carbon ring and chain structures, respectively [78,93,94]. Figure 3 presents the D- and G-bands of activated chars. In the BF-C700, BF-C700KOH, and BF-C850 chars, the D-bands are located between 1320 cm−1 for BF-C700 and 1352 cm−1 for BF-C700KOH. The G-band is located at peaks of 1590 cm−1 for the BF-C700 and BF-C700KOH and 1598 cm−1 for the BF-C850. As reported by De Sousa et al. [95], the shift in the G-band indicates an improvement in crystallinity, and this is also evident in ATR studies. Figure 3 presents the Raman spectra of the activated HDF-C700, HDF-C700KOH, and HDF-C850 chars: the D-band is at about 1355 cm−1, while the G-band is at 1591 cm−1 for HDF-C700, 1593 cm−1 for HDF-C700KOH, and 1596 cm−1 for HDF-C850. In this case, a shift in the G-band is also evident. For both activated carbonyls, the G-band is stronger than the D-band.
As reported by [78,96], band position 1580 cm−1 refers to aromatic ring quadrant breathing, alkene C=C (bond type-sp2); 1380 cm−1 methyl group, semi-circle breathing of aromatic rings, amorphous carbon structures (bond type-sp2, sp3); 1320 cm−1 band on highly ordered carbonaceous materials; and C-C between aromatic rings and aromatics with not less than 6 rings (bond type-sp2). On the other hand, the authors of [77] presented Raman spectra in activated biocarbon samples synthesized at different temperature ranges of 500, 600, 700, and 800 °C. They point to two peaks at 1400 and 1600 cm−1, designated as peaks D and G. The study is similar to [77,97], which report that the D-band is attributed to vibrations in the plane of sp2-bonded carbon (intramolecular C-C vibrations of aromatic carbon layers) within structural defects. The authors of [77,98] report that the G-band arises from vibrations in the plane of sp2-bonded crystalline carbon (intermolecular shear vibrations between individual C layers).
The ratio of the integrated intensity (peak intensity (I)) of the main Raman bands explains the changes in the structure of biocarbon in different raw materials [93]. The ratio of defect structures to ordered structures in the carbonate is denoted as ID/IG. A low ID/IG ratio indicates a high amount of ordered carbon structures in the biocarbon. At low temperatures, values less than one signify that the carbonization process is still not complete. This incomplete process tends to leave some organic matter resulting from the thermal decomposition of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. The increase in ID/IG represents the number of defects in the carbon and results in preferential consumption of small defect structures [78]. In the tested activated carbonates, the ID/IG ratio was as follows: 0.83 for BF-C700; 0.85 for HDF-C700, HDF-C700KOH, and BF-C700KOH; and 0.84 for HDF-C850 and BF-C850. The tested carbon materials exhibited minimal differences in structural disorder, with ID/IG ratios consistently ranging from 0.83 to 0.85. This indicates that variations in activation method and pyrolysis temperature had little effect on defect density. Typically, higher pyrolysis temperatures enhance graphitization and lower the ID/IG ratio [99], but in this case, the impact was negligible. Additionally, chemical activation with KOH did not significantly alter disorder levels, as HDF-C700KOH and BF-C700KOH displayed the same ID/IG ratio as their non-KOH counterparts. While KOH activation generally increases porosity, it does not necessarily enhance carbon ordering. Furthermore, both HDF and BF showed similar graphitization trends, despite their compositional differences, suggesting that precursor type had limited influence on the structural evolution of the carbon matrix under these conditions. Chatterjee et al. [77] indicate in their study that the ID/IG ratio ranged from 0.65 to 0.88 for raw and activated miscanthus samples, 0.70–0.88 for switch millet, 0.58–0.83 for corn straw, and 0.59–1.01 for sugarcane bagasse. In contrast, [100] proves that the pyrolysis temperature has a greater effect on the properties of biocarbon than the raw material.

3.5. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Figure 4 and Figure 5 show images taken with a ZEISS high-resolution SUPRA 35 scanning electron microscope (SEM). Scanning microscopy studies show that the chars are characterized by a coarse-grained surface and heterogeneous porous structure. The chars after KOH chemical activation showed larger particle sizes (HDF-C700 3–5 µm and HDF-C700KOH 5–8 µm; BF-C700 8–10 µm; and BF-C700KOH 10–15 µm) and more block structures, which may be due to the reaction between the mixed base and the char. The longitudinal cross-sections of chars showed well-defined smooth structures with a shape resembling long cylindrical channels.

3.6. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)

Chars BF-C850 and HDF-C850 were additionally analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) with a high-angle annular dark field (HAADF) detector together with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) to obtain additional information on the imaged nanoparticles. Figure 6 shows STEM images together with EDX analysis for chars activated at 850 °C, i.e.: BF-C850 and HDF-C850.
The images show particles of similar sizes (several hundred nanometers) and shapes. The difference related to the chemical composition is clearly visible. HAADF images reveal chemical contrast, which means that the recorded intensity is proportional to the value of the atomic number Z. Areas containing heavier elements are bright, lighter, or empty-dark. For the BF-C850 particle, the intensity is the same everywhere and relatively low. This particle is made exclusively of light elements (mainly C, O). For the HDF-C850 particle, small (several nanometers), bright grains are visible, i.e., grains made of heavier elements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni).

4. Conclusions

The pyrolysis of bamboo flooring (BF) and high-density fiberboard (HDF) resulted in considerable weight reduction due to the evaporation of volatile components, with the carbon content increasing significantly in both char types—81% for BF-C and 75% for HDF-C. This rise in carbon content, accompanied by a decrease in oxygen levels, led to an improvement in the chars’ calorific value (from 15.18 MJ/kg to 25.59 MJ/kg), enhancing their potential for energy applications. Heavy metal analysis showed that BF-C contained higher concentrations of metals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) compared to HDF-C, though the overall levels of toxic and carcinogenic metals like cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) were below 2000 ppm. The low levels of these toxic elements make the chars suitable for environmental applications such as in adsorptive water purification and as a soil supplement to enhance fertility.
FTIR spectroscopy revealed the presence of various functional groups, including C=C, CH2, and CH3, across different samples, with fewer functional groups observed in chars activated at higher temperatures, suggesting the formation of more pure carbon. In addition, Raman spectroscopy confirmed the presence of characteristic D- and G-bands, and shifts in the G-band indicated enhanced crystallinity in the activated chars, further supported by the observed ID/IG ratio (0.83–0.85), which reflects a level of ordering comparable to other biochar studies. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the chars exhibited a coarse-grained, porous structure, with larger particle sizes and block formations present in KOH-activated samples, likely due to chemical reactions during activation. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) provided further insight into the elemental composition of the chars, confirming the presence of essential elements like calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), and potassium (K), which are advantageous for agricultural uses as they can increase soil pH and enrich soil nutrients.
While these findings highlight the promising applications of the chars, some limitations remain. The study was restricted to bamboo flooring and HDF as feedstocks, limiting generalizability to other wood-based waste materials. Additionally, the long-term stability and scalability of the chemical activation process, as well as the potential leaching behavior of heavy metals, require further investigation. A more comprehensive life cycle analysis (LCA) would also help evaluate the environmental impact of the pyrolysis process. Moreover, understanding the influence of additives such as resins, adhesives, and flame retardants on the final composition, structure (BET), and safety of the chars should be a priority.
Despite these limitations, the chars’ high carbon content, low toxicity, and beneficial elemental composition make them ideal candidates for use in environmental remediation, including water purification and agricultural soil amendment. Additionally, there is a broader opportunity to integrate the chars into sustainable waste management strategies through Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Although EPR has not yet been implemented for furniture and wood-based waste, it offers the potential to finance the cost of separate collection, sorting, treatment, and recycling of such materials. EPR could also drive waste prevention and reuse, pushing producers towards sustainable material sourcing and the elimination of hazardous chemicals in production processes [3]. The combination of chars’ environmental benefits and the framework provided by EPR creates a pathway toward a more circular economy, emphasizing sustainability in both resource use and waste management.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/su17072995/s1, Figure S1: Mill-shredded wood waste: (a) bamboo flooring (BF); (b) fiberboards (HDF); Figure S2: Scheme of the system used for char production by pyrolysis process; Figure S3: Scheme of the thermal activation process; Activation procedure; Table S1: Functional groups associated with FTIR spectra of pine needle biochar and bamboo leaf biochar.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.K.-S. and A.M.; methodology, M.K.-S.; validation, M.K.-S., A.M., and W.Ś.; formal analysis, M.K.-S. and A.M.; investigation, M.K.-S., W.Ś., M.P., D.Ł., K.M., K.T., D.L., W.B. and A.J.; resources, M.K.-S.; data curation, M.K.-S. and A.M.; writing—original draft preparation, M.K.-S. and A.M.; writing—review and editing, M.K.-S. and A.M.; visualization, W.Ś.; supervision, M.K.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The laboratory equipment and materials were co-financed by the 10th Project-Based Learning-PBL funding competition within the “Excellence Initiative-Research University” program of Silesian University of Technology and by the Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian University of Technology (statutory research).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
BFBamboo flooring
BF-CChar from bamboo floor
BF-C850Char from bamboo floor thermally activated at 850 °C for 15 min
BF-C700Char from bamboo floor thermally activated at 700 °C for 15 min
BF-C700KOHChar from bamboo floor chemically activated with 2 M KOH at 700 °C for 15 min
FTIR-ATRFourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy—Attenuated Total Reflectance
HDFhigh-density fiberboards
HDF-CChar from HDF floor panel
HDF-C850Char from HDF floor panel thermally activated at 850 °C for 15 min
HDF-C700Char from HDF floor panel thermally activated at 700 °C for 15 min
HDF-C700KOHChar from HDF floor panel chemically activated with 2 M KOH at 700 °C for 15 min
SEMScanning electron microscope
TEMTransmission electron microscope

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Figure 1. ATR spectrum of the BF samples in the range 400–4000 cm−1.
Figure 1. ATR spectrum of the BF samples in the range 400–4000 cm−1.
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Figure 2. ATR spectrum of the HDF samples in the range 400–4000 cm−1.
Figure 2. ATR spectrum of the HDF samples in the range 400–4000 cm−1.
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Figure 3. Raman spectra of the (a) BF and (b) HDF samples.
Figure 3. Raman spectra of the (a) BF and (b) HDF samples.
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Figure 4. SEM images of three chars: (a) BF-C700; (b) BF-C700KOH; (c) BF-C850.
Figure 4. SEM images of three chars: (a) BF-C700; (b) BF-C700KOH; (c) BF-C850.
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Figure 5. SEM images of three chars: (a) HDF-C700; (b) HDF-C700KOH; (c) HDF-C850.
Figure 5. SEM images of three chars: (a) HDF-C700; (b) HDF-C700KOH; (c) HDF-C850.
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Figure 6. STEM-HAADF (left) and STEM-BF (right) images as well as EDX spectra of (a) BF-C850; (b) HDF-C850.
Figure 6. STEM-HAADF (left) and STEM-BF (right) images as well as EDX spectra of (a) BF-C850; (b) HDF-C850.
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Table 1. Fuel and elemental analysis of substrates and chars before activation.
Table 1. Fuel and elemental analysis of substrates and chars before activation.
SamplesElemental Analysis Fuel Analysis
%%MJ/kg
CHO *NSClMAVMCV
BF49.684.9936.350.140.650.735.971.4972.8115.18
HDF45.364.8038.554.880.25<LOD6.160.8377.0918.58
BF-C81.004.506.700.280.020.404.492.6122.5425.59
HDF-C75.004.108.995.120.07<LOD4.652.0719.8124.17
* by difference; LOD—limit of detection.
Table 2. The content of heavy metals in bamboo floor (BF) and high-density fiberboard (HDF) chars, µg/g = ppm.
Table 2. The content of heavy metals in bamboo floor (BF) and high-density fiberboard (HDF) chars, µg/g = ppm.
SampleContent, µg/g = ppm
CdCoCrCuFeMnNiPbZn
BF-C30NDND2532166130641956ND2637
BF-C850NDNDND1940165243NDND203
BF-C70023NDND23598851284988ND1206
BF-C700 KOHNDNDND2007771476624ND427
HDF-CNDNDND3515183813951094ND2770
HDF-C850NDNDND23611339232NDND201
HDF-C700NDNDND1896732148NDND1380
HDF-C700 KOHNDNDND697850175NDND281
ND—not detected.
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Kajda-Szcześniak, M.; Mainka, A.; Ścierski, W.; Pawlyta, M.; Łukowiec, D.; Matus, K.; Turyła, K.; Lot, D.; Barańska, W.; Jabłońska, A. Activated Carbon from Selected Wood-Based Waste Materials. Sustainability 2025, 17, 2995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17072995

AMA Style

Kajda-Szcześniak M, Mainka A, Ścierski W, Pawlyta M, Łukowiec D, Matus K, Turyła K, Lot D, Barańska W, Jabłońska A. Activated Carbon from Selected Wood-Based Waste Materials. Sustainability. 2025; 17(7):2995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17072995

Chicago/Turabian Style

Kajda-Szcześniak, Małgorzata, Anna Mainka, Waldemar Ścierski, Mirosława Pawlyta, Dariusz Łukowiec, Krzysztof Matus, Kalina Turyła, Daniel Lot, Weronika Barańska, and Anna Jabłońska. 2025. "Activated Carbon from Selected Wood-Based Waste Materials" Sustainability 17, no. 7: 2995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17072995

APA Style

Kajda-Szcześniak, M., Mainka, A., Ścierski, W., Pawlyta, M., Łukowiec, D., Matus, K., Turyła, K., Lot, D., Barańska, W., & Jabłońska, A. (2025). Activated Carbon from Selected Wood-Based Waste Materials. Sustainability, 17(7), 2995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17072995

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