A Hybrid Framework for Integrating Native Flora in City Branding: Synthesizing Plant Scheme for FIFA World Cup 2034 Host Cities

Abstract

City branding is crucial for shaping urban identity and global stature. Hosting the FIFA World Cup 2034 in Saudi Arabia across Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, Abha, and Neom offers a chance to infuse ecological, cultural, and aesthetic elements into urban landscapes. This study introduces a hybrid framework for plant scheme design that blends native, adaptive, and ornamental species to enhance biodiversity and visual appeal. It analyzes case studies from Expo 2020 Dubai, Sydney Olympic Park, and Gardens by the Bay, demonstrating how landscape architecture can unite sustainability with cultural and aesthetic values. The application in Saudi Arabia’s cities customizes plant choices to local climates and cultural contexts, with a focus on Al Khobar showing successful integration of coastal resilience and heritage. This approach provides a scalable, scientifically grounded method for incorporating ecological and cultural elements into cityscapes, promoting sustainable urban development during global events.

1. Introduction

City branding has emerged as a strategic approach for enhancing a city’s global competitiveness, identity, and attractiveness in an increasingly interconnected world. It provides cities with a framework to establish distinctive and memorable imagery, thereby influencing perceptions and attracting residents, tourists, and investors [1,2]. Among the critical components of city branding, urban landscapes play a pivotal role, functioning as both physical and symbolic representations of place [3,4]. These landscapes reflect a city’s cultural heritage, environmental values, and aesthetic qualities, shaping its identity and public image [5]. Within urban landscapes, plants serve as integral elements that not only enrich aesthetics but also reinforce perceptions of sustainability and livability. Iconic examples, such as Tokyo’s cherry blossoms or Provence’s lavender fields, highlight how vegetation can encapsulate cultural identity while addressing environmental concerns. Studies have further demonstrated the economic and environmental benefits of urban greenery, such as enhancing property values by up to 20% and reducing urban temperatures by 2–3 °C, cementing the role of vegetation as a cornerstone of effective city branding strategies [6,7].

Global events, such as the Olympics, World Expos, and FIFA World Cups, offer unparalleled opportunities for cities to showcase their cultural identity and ecological diversity on an international stage. These events provide a platform to integrate native plants into urban landscapes, thereby enhancing regional distinctiveness and environmental sustainability [8]. For instance, the Sydney 2000 Olympics incorporated native species like Eucalyptus and Banksia, showcasing Australia’s biodiversity while demonstrating ecological responsibility [9]. The inclusion of native vegetation in such events strengthens cultural representation and preserves biocultural diversity, which is critical in an increasingly homogenized urban world [10,11]. Furthermore, native plants contribute to sustainability goals by reducing resource requirements and supporting local ecosystems, offering a replicable model for integrating cultural and ecological values into the landscapes of large-scale events [12].

The FIFA World Cup 2034, hosted by Saudi Arabia, provides a transformative opportunity to demonstrate the Kingdom’s unique cultural and ecological identity within the global arena. Matches across five cities in distinct regions of the country—Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, Abha, and Neom—highlight the challenge and potential of showcasing regional diversity while maintaining national cohesion. By integrating native plants and traditional architectural elements into urban design, Saudi Arabia can reflect the ecological and cultural uniqueness of each city. For instance, Riyadh can emphasize its modernity through structured urban greenery, Jeddah can highlight its historic coastal heritage with salt-tolerant flora, and Al Khobar can showcase its ancient landscapes with desert-adapted vegetation. Incorporating native plants into the landscape not only amplifies cultural representation but also reinforces ecological stewardship and national identity [10,11]. By leveraging these strategies, Saudi Arabia has the potential to position the FIFA World Cup 2034 as a model for balancing cultural unity with ecological diversity, demonstrating the transformative role of landscape architecture in city branding.

This study addresses the pressing challenge of integrating ecological, cultural, and aesthetic considerations into plant scheme design to support city branding efforts in the context of high-profile global events, specifically the FIFA World Cup 2034. Current landscape strategies tend to compartmentalize these dimensions, lacking a unified framework that enables their simultaneous and context-sensitive application. To overcome this limitation, the research proposes a hybrid theoretical framework that systematically merges native biodiversity, cultural symbolism, and visual coherence into urban landscape design. The guiding research question is the following: How can an integrative planting framework reconcile ecological sustainability, cultural identity, and aesthetic quality to support city branding in the FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities? The innovation of this study lies in reconceptualizing plant schemes not merely as decorative or ecological elements, but as strategic instruments for articulating urban identity, reinforcing cultural narratives, and enhancing environmental functionality. Central to this contribution is the development of an evaluation framework capable of systematically assessing planting strategies through the integration of ecological performance, cultural symbolism, and aesthetic coherence. Designed to operate across diverse climatic and socio-cultural contexts, the framework enables the formulation and critical appraisal of multifunctional landscapes that are simultaneously context-sensitive and globally legible. This evaluative dimension provides a structured methodology for guiding plant scheme design, particularly within the high-stakes context of city branding for international events such as the FIFA World Cup 2034. The study makes several distinct contributions. Firstly, it introduces a new conceptual model that situates planting design at the core of sustainable and symbolic urban transformation. Secondly, it provides a critical comparative analysis of exemplary international cases, yielding transferable strategies relevant to arid and semi-arid urban regions. Thirdly, the framework is applied to generate tailored plant palettes and spatial strategies for each of the five Saudi host cities, aligning botanical selection with local typologies and heritage. Finally, the study formulates generalizable guidelines that extend beyond event-specific applications, offering a scalable approach for future urban landscape initiatives that aim to unify sustainability objectives with cultural legibility and visual distinction. These contributions place the research at the nexus of landscape architecture, city branding, and environmentally responsive urban planning.

This study employs a structured three-phase methodology that integrates theoretical, analytical, and empirical components to develop and validate a tripartite planning model for plant scheme design within the context of city branding for the FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities in Saudi Arabia (Figure 1). The study begins with a theoretical phase, using inductive reasoning and a comprehensive literature review to establish the conceptual foundations surrounding native and adaptive plant use, ecological resilience, cultural representation, and aesthetic strategies in urban landscape design. Based on this synthesis, a hybrid framework is developed that balances ecological, cultural, and visual dimensions. The second phase adopts an analytical approach through deductive reasoning, using qualitative case study analysis to examine three internationally recognized projects—Expo 2020 Dubai, Sydney Olympic Park, and Gardens by the Bay, Singapore. These cases are selected for their exemplary integration of native flora into large-scale, culturally resonant, and ecologically sustainable urban spaces. Each case is evaluated to understand how planting strategies align with the proposed framework’s dimensions. The third, empirical phase applies the synthesis-based framework to five Saudi cities—Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, Abha, and Neom—tailoring plant schemes to each city’s unique environmental conditions and cultural identity. A detailed application in Al Khobar is presented to demonstrate the operationalization of the framework, offering a model that integrates native, adaptive, and ornamental species into a cohesive urban planting strategy. This multi-scalar methodology ensures that the proposed framework is both theoretically robust and contextually applicable for sustainable landscape design in high-profile global events.

2. Native Plants in City Branding

Branding strategies inform the spatial and symbolic expressions of cities on the global landscape [1,2,13]. Within this paradigm, the integration of native plants into city branding strategies has proven to be an innovative approach, leveraging their dual role in fostering environmental sustainability and reinforcing cultural and ecological identity. Kavaratzis and Ashworth [14] propose that city branding operates through three interconnected dimensions: the symbolic meaning of the place, stakeholder behavior, and the physical landscape. Native plants, as integral components of urban landscapes, align these dimensions with ecological principles, enabling cities to embed authenticity in their branding efforts while addressing global sustainability narratives. Landscapes, through their symbolic, ecological, and functional roles, become critical conveyors of urban identity, particularly in the context of worldwide events.

The symbolic and cultural resonance of native plants further amplifies their value in city branding initiatives. Plants like olive trees (Olea europaea), deeply entrenched in the cultural and economic narratives of the Mediterranean, have been successfully used to reinforce regional identity in urban spaces. Similarly, in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia, the Ghaf tree (Prosopis cineraria) has emerged as a powerful symbol of resilience and heritage, demonstrating how native flora can integrate natural and cultural narratives [15]. Nassauer [16] emphasizes that culturally resonant landscapes foster community pride and engagement, positioning regionally adapted vegetation as a powerful medium for shaping meaningful and memorable urban environments. Moreover, incorporating endemic flora into city branding strategies enhances place-based authenticity, enabling cities to assert a distinct identity amid increasing global homogenization [14]. By capitalizing on the ecological specificity and cultural symbolism of these species, cities can strengthen their international competitiveness while deepening their connection with local communities.

Native plants also contribute significant ecological benefits, aligning with sustainable urbanism goals and reinforcing their utility in city branding. As Tallamy [17] emphasizes, native plants support biodiversity by providing habitat and food for indigenous fauna, which enhances ecological resilience in urban ecosystems. Their integration into urban branding strategies aligns with biophilic urbanism principles, which seek to strengthen human–nature connections in cities [18]. Biophilic strategies not only bolster a city’s ecological credibility but also resonate with global sustainability standards, which are critical in contemporary branding efforts. For instance, Dubai’s use of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) in urban landscapes exemplifies the dual ecological and cultural role of native plants, linking branding narratives to the city’s environmental context and historical heritage [19,20]. Moreover, native plants provide functional benefits such as mitigating urban heat islands, improving air quality, and supporting pollinators, which enhance livability and align urban landscapes with sustainability imperatives [21,22].

Case studies highlight the transformative potential of native plants in city branding. Singapore, branded as the “City in a Garden”, has integrated native and adaptive flora into its urban greening initiatives, exemplified by the iconic Supertree structures at Gardens by the Bay. These structures, featuring native and adaptive species, have become global symbols of Singapore’s innovative approach to sustainability and urban identity, attracting millions of visitors annually [23,24]. Similarly, Portland, Oregon, has incorporated regionally appropriate vegetation into its urban green spaces to reinforce its identity as a pioneer in ecological urbanism and environmental stewardship. These examples illustrate how such planting strategies can successfully integrate ecological, cultural, and aesthetic dimensions within broader city branding efforts, resulting in urban spaces that are both functionally effective and symbolically rich.

3. A Framework for Plant Scheme Design in Worldwide Events

Worldwide events such as the Olympics, Expos, and FIFA World Cups provide a unique platform for cities to showcase their identity, ecological values, and branding potential on a global scale. The selection of plant schemes for these events and their planting design must address the interplay of three critical objectives: ecological sustainability, aesthetic appeal, and cultural representation. Existing frameworks for plant scheme design—including ecological, aesthetic, and functional approaches—offer distinct advantages but often fall short of meeting the multidimensional demands of such events. To overcome these limitations, a hybrid framework is proposed, integrating the ecological benefits of native plants with the aesthetic impact of ornamental species while embedding cultural identity into the landscape design.

The ecological approach emphasizes native and adaptive plant species that promote biodiversity, enhance ecosystem resilience, and reduce resource demands such as water and fertilizers. A notable example could be noticed in some practices in the Sydney 2000 Olympics, where Eucalyptus and Banksia were incorporated to highlight Australia’s biodiversity and reduce maintenance requirements, demonstrating ecological responsibility [8]. However, this approach often struggles to deliver the immediate visual impact necessary to captivate global audiences, a critical factor in high-profile international events [25].

The aesthetic approach, by contrast, prioritizes bold and visually striking designs that rely on a distinctive theme: vibrant colors, dynamic forms, and layered compositions. Some practices in Expo 2020 Dubai exemplified this approach, featuring captivating landscapes that successfully engaged international visitors [26]. However, aesthetic frameworks often depend on exotic or resource-intensive species, which may undermine sustainability goals and cultural authenticity [27]. The functional approach, focusing on practical considerations such as shade provision, urban cooling, and soil stabilization, effectively addresses urban challenges but lacks the cultural depth and aesthetic sophistication necessary for worldwide events [7].

To balance these competing objectives, the tripartite planning model integrates the strengths of these approaches. Native and adaptive species form the ecological backbone, supporting biodiversity, reducing maintenance needs, and reinforcing regional identity [27,28]. To address the aesthetic requirements of international audiences, ornamental species are selectively introduced to create focal points and enhance visual appeal in high-impact areas [7]. This strategic combination ensures that plant schemes resonate with both local and global audiences while aligning with sustainability goals and enhancing cultural representation. This synthesis-based framework also emphasizes cultural integration by embedding locally significant plants into the landscape. For instance, the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) and the Ghaf tree (Prosopis cineraria), both culturally and ecologically significant to the Arabian Peninsula, serve as symbols of resilience and heritage, effectively linking landscape design to regional identity [10,29]. By incorporating such species, the framework fosters authenticity and strengthens the connection between the urban landscape and its cultural context.

This proposed framework transcends the limitations of existing models. While the ecological approach fosters long-term environmental sustainability and the aesthetic approach achieves immediate visual impact, the multidimensional approach ensures that both goals are met without compromising cultural authenticity or practical functionality. By integrating ecological resilience, visual appeal, and cultural identity, the hybrid framework delivers a multifunctional design that aligns with global sustainability objectives and enhances the branding potential of cities during worldwide events. This approach positions cities as sustainable, culturally authentic, and globally competitive, leaving a legacy of environmental stewardship and cultural representation (

Table 1. Comparative analysis of urban landscape design’s different approaches.

Framework Component	Description	Key References	Examples
Ecological Approach	Focuses on native and adaptive species to promote biodiversity, reduce resource demands, and enhance ecosystem resilience. An example is the Sydney 2000 Olympics, which showcased native species like Eucalyptus and Banksia to highlight biodiversity while minimizing maintenance needs.	[7,8,9]	- Sydney 2000 Olympics (Eucalyptus and Banksia) - High Line Park, NYC (native prairie species) - Singapore’s native forest restoration initiatives
Aesthetic Approach	Prioritizes visually striking designs using bold colors, dynamic forms, and layered compositions. An example is Expo 2020 Dubai, where ornamental species were used to create captivating landscapes for global audiences.	[25,26,27]	- Expo 2020 Dubai (ornamental species for vibrant displays) - Versailles Gardens, France (formal ornamental planting) - Marina Bay Sands, Singapore (tropical ornamental gardens)
Functional Approach	Addresses practical needs such as shading, urban cooling, and soil stabilization. Although effective in solving urban challenges, it often lacks aesthetic and cultural depth required for global events.	[7,18,27]	- Curitiba, Brazil (green infrastructure for urban cooling) - Seoul’s Cheonggyecheon Stream (flood control and greenery) - Melbourne’s urban forest strategy (urban shading)
Hybrid Framework	Combines the ecological benefits of native plants with the visual appeal of ornamental species. Native plants form the ecological backbone, while ornamental plants are selectively incorporated to create focal points and enhance aesthetic appeal. The framework integrates cultural representation by including regionally significant species, such as Date Palms or Ghaf trees, to reflect heritage and authenticity.	[10,19,20,27,28]	- Gardens by the Bay, Singapore (native and ornamental integration) - Expo 2020 Dubai (hybrid schemes with native and ornamental species) - Riyadh Season Events, Saudi Arabia (cultural native species with modern designs)

).

4. Case Studies

Expo 2020 Dubai, Sydney Olympic Park, and Gardens by the Bay, Singapore, were selected as case studies for their exemplary integration of ecological sustainability, aesthetic innovation, and cultural representation in large-scale urban landscapes. Expo 2020 Dubai demonstrates adaptive planting strategies in arid environments, Sydney Olympic Park exemplifies large-scale ecological restoration, and Gardens by the Bay integrates biophilic design with advanced ecological technologies. These cases validate the proposed hybrid framework by illustrating its scalability across diverse climatic and cultural contexts, establishing a scientifically grounded model for plant scheme design in FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities. The following table presents a quantitative landscape profile of these three case studies, highlighting key spatial, climatic, and botanical metrics that underpin their integrated design strategies (

Table 2. Quantitative landscape profile of the three case studies.

Category	Expo 2020 Dubai	Sydney Olympic Park	Gardens by the Bay
Geolocation	25.2048° N, 55.2708° E, Elev. ~16 m	33.8488° S, 151.0635° E, Elev. ~2 m	1.2816° N, 103.8636° E, Elev. ~5 m
Climatic Zone	Hyper-arid desert (BWh)	Humid subtropical (Cfa)	Tropical rainforest (Af)
Native Plant Coverage	35% (~81,000 m2)	65% (~130,000 m2)	30% (~75,000 m2)
Adaptive Plant Coverage	40% (~92,500 m2)	20% (~40,000 m2)	30% (~75,000 m2)
Ornamental Plant Coverage	25% (~57,500 m2)	15% (~30,000 m2)	40% (~100,000 m2)
Symbolic Cultural Species	Phoenix dactylifera, Prosopis cineraria	Eucalyptus spp., Banksia spp.	Dracaena cinnabari, Orchidaceae
Key Cultural Plant References	Cultural gardens and shaded plazas with Date Palms	Aboriginal cultural zones and reforestation areas	Ethnobotanical gardens and thematic floral zones

).

4.1. Expo 2020 Dubai

Expo 2020 Dubai employed a scientifically driven composite design strategy for plant selection, integrating native, adaptive, and ornamental species to achieve ecological sustainability, cultural representation, and aesthetic excellence. This strategic approach transformed the event’s landscape into a model for sustainable urban development, demonstrating how native vegetation and functional design can coexist in large-scale international projects.

The ecological dimension of the landscape was structured around native plant species, selected for their capacity to enhance biodiversity, improve ecological stability, and preserve the UAE’s natural heritage. Prosopis cineraria (Ghaf tree), recognized as the national tree of the UAE, was prominently incorporated due to its resilience in arid environments, deep-rooted cultural significance, and ability to provide shade in public areas [30]. Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr Tree) was selected for its adaptability and medicinal properties, reinforcing both biodiversity and cultural narratives [31]. Additionally, Acacia tortilis, a key species in desert ecosystems, played a crucial role in enhancing microclimatic conditions and providing habitat support for native fauna, thereby strengthening the site’s ecological functionality [31]. Through the inclusion of these species, the landscape was designed to function as an ecologically resilient and self-sustaining system, aligned with the environmental conditions of the UAE.

To complement native species, adaptive plants were strategically integrated to reinforce cultural identity while enhancing the functional resilience of the landscape. Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm), a cultural and economic symbol of the Middle East, was extensively planted to provide shade, mitigate urban heat, and establish a connection to the region’s historical agricultural traditions [19,20]. Dracaena cinnabari (Socotra Dragon Tree), native to the Socotra archipelago, was used in the Sustainability Pavilion to highlight the integration of regionally significant flora into sustainable design, demonstrating its capacity to thrive in extreme environments while contributing to the site’s aesthetic and ecological integrity [32]. Furthermore, Adenium obesum (Desert Rose) introduced visual vibrancy while maintaining ecological feasibility in arid conditions, owing to its drought resistance and striking floral display [33]. The selection of these adaptive species underscores their dual role in enhancing the visual, cultural, and environmental resilience of the Expo’s landscapes.

Ornamental species were carefully selected to ensure that the landscape achieved both ecological stability and aesthetic appeal, creating a visually engaging environment for visitors while maintaining environmental integrity. Artemisia herba-alba (Artemisia), a hardy shrub with extensive ground coverage, was incorporated to mitigate soil erosion and enhance spatial continuity [34]. Atriplex halimus (Saltbush), valued for its exceptional salt tolerance, was strategically placed in high-salinity areas to contribute to ecological stability while adding visual texture to the landscape [34]. Additionally, Echinocactus spp. (Hedgehog Cactus) was introduced for its structural and visual impact, reinforcing the site’s xerophytic landscape character [33]. The combination of these species illustrates an ecologically informed aesthetic approach, ensuring that plant selection supported both sustainability and visual harmony.

The composite design strategy adopted in Expo 2020 Dubai demonstrated the effectiveness of integrating ecological, cultural, and aesthetic principles to create multifunctional landscapes. The strategic pairing of Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) and Prosopis cineraria (Ghaf tree) exemplified the intersection of cultural symbolism and ecological resilience, reinforcing the region’s natural and historical identity while supporting biodiversity [19,20]. Similarly, the juxtaposition of Adenium obesum (Desert Rose) with functional ground cover species, such as Artemisia herba-alba and Atriplex halimus, achieved an optimal balance between aesthetic vibrancy and ecological functionality [32].

By successfully integrating native, adaptive, and ornamental species, Expo 2020 Dubai established a new benchmark for large-scale sustainable urban landscapes. This multidimensional approach serves as a replicable model for future urban developments, illustrating how plant schemes can enhance environmental resilience while maintaining cultural and visual integrity in high-profile international events (

Table 3. Hybrid approach to plant scheme development in Expo 2020 Dubai’s urban landscape.

Framework Component	Plant Category	Plant Names	Purpose and Role
Ecological Component	Native Plants	- Ghaf tree (Prosopis cineraria) - Sidr Tree (Ziziphus spina-christi) - Acacia Tree (Acacia tortilis)	Supports local biodiversity, provides shade, enhances ecological stability, and reflects cultural heritage.
Cultural Component	Adaptive Plants	- Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera) - Socotra Dragon Tree (Dracaena cinnabari) - Desert Rose (Adenium obesum)	Thrives in arid conditions, requires minimal water, and enhances the cultural narrative of the landscape.
Aesthetic Component	Ornamental Shrubs and Ground Cover	- Artemisia (Artemisia herba-alba) - Saltbush (Atriplex halimus) - Hedgehog Cactus (Echinocactus spp.)	Adds visual diversity, controls erosion, and supports sustainable planting practices.
Hybrid Integration	Combination of Native and Adaptive Plants	- Integration of Date Palms and Ghaf trees - Use of Desert Roses alongside ornamental shrubs	Balances ecological sustainability and visual appeal, fostering a unified and culturally resonant landscape.

).

4.2. Sydney Olympic Park

Sydney Olympic Park, developed for the 2000 Summer Olympics, exemplifies the hybrid approach to plant schemes in worldwide events by integrating ecological restoration, aesthetic design, and cultural representation. This transformative project turned a degraded industrial site into a thriving ecological and cultural hub, leaving a legacy of sustainability and community engagement.

The ecological component of the park is centered on native vegetation restoration and wetland rehabilitation, significantly enhancing biodiversity and ecological resilience. The park features over 400 native plant species, including three endangered ecological communities: Sydney Turpentine Ironbark Forest, Swamp Oak Floodplain Forest, and Coastal Saltmarsh, showcasing a commitment to preserving and restoring critical habitats [35]. In addition, the park’s extensive wetland restoration encompasses both estuarine and freshwater habitats, providing essential support for diverse fauna, including the endangered Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea). These rehabilitated wetlands not only play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and supporting species survival but also contribute to improving water quality within the park’s ecosystems [36]. This integrated approach to ecological restoration highlights the park’s role as a model for sustainable urban environmental management.

The aesthetic component of the park is defined by its visually engaging landscape design and the seamless integration of public art, which collectively enhance the visitor experience while promoting environmental sustainability. The park’s design features rolling hills, promenades, and reforested areas, skillfully blending native flora with public spaces to create a harmonious and inviting environment [37]. Additionally, sculptures and architectural installations are thoughtfully integrated into the landscape, reflecting Australia’s cultural heritage and contributing to a visually dynamic and culturally rich setting. These artistic elements not only enhance the park’s aesthetic appeal but also reinforce its cultural narrative, making it a vibrant and meaningful public space [38]. This combination of design and art demonstrates how aesthetics can be thoughtfully incorporated to create multifunctional and inspiring landscapes.

The cultural representation of the park is deeply rooted in the preservation of Aboriginal heritage and the promotion of educational initiatives that highlight the area’s ecological and cultural significance. Key cultural sites, such as the Newington Armory, are carefully preserved, reflecting a commitment to acknowledging and respecting the indigenous heritage of the region. This effort seamlessly integrates cultural representation into the park’s broader ecological and aesthetic framework, ensuring that the landscape honors its historical and cultural roots [35]. Complementing these conservation efforts, the park offers educational programs designed to inform visitors about the ecological and cultural importance of the landscape. These initiatives foster community engagement and enhance public appreciation of Australia’s natural and cultural heritage, creating a deeper connection between the park and its visitors [39]. Together, these components underscore the park’s role as a space that celebrates and educates about the rich cultural legacy of the region.

The hybrid integration at Sydney Olympic Park exemplifies a balanced approach that combines native vegetation, adaptive species, and ornamental elements to achieve ecological sustainability, aesthetic appeal, and cultural authenticity. The park’s development was guided by key environmental principles, including water conservation, waste minimization, and pollution reduction, ensuring a sustainable and resilient landscape [39]. Native species such as Eucalyptus and Banksia were strategically utilized to promote ecological stability while minimizing maintenance requirements. Additionally, the restoration of wetlands created vital habitats for native species, significantly enhancing biodiversity and improving water management across the park. Cultural authenticity was woven into the design through features that reflect Aboriginal heritage, fostering a deeper sense of place and connection to the area’s historical and cultural identity. This integrated approach demonstrates how ecological, aesthetic, and cultural goals can be harmoniously achieved, setting a benchmark for sustainable urban park development (

Table 4. Hybrid approach to plant scheme development in Sydney Olympic Park urban landscape.

Framework Component	Plant Category	Plant Names	Purpose and Role
Ecological Component	Native Plants	- Sydney Turpentine Ironbark Forest (endangered community) - Swamp Oak Floodplain Forest (endangered community) - Coastal Saltmarsh (endangered community) - Native wetland vegetation (supports Green and Golden Bell Frog)	Supports biodiversity, restores ecological balance, provides habitat for endangered species, and enhances environmental resilience.
Aesthetic Component	Native and Reforested Landscapes	- Eucalyptus species - Banksia species - Reforested park areas with rolling hills and promenades	Creates visually engaging landscapes that blend native flora with public spaces, enhancing visitor experiences and environmental sustainability.
Cultural Representation	Aboriginal Heritage Conservation	- Preservation of Newington Armory cultural site - Public art installations integrated into the landscape	Reflects and honors indigenous heritage, providing educational and cultural engagement opportunities.
Hybrid Integration	Combined Native and Functional Planting	- Wetland restoration with native estuarine and freshwater vegetation - Use of native tree species in reforestation projects	Balances ecological restoration, aesthetic appeal, and cultural significance, fostering a sustainable and culturally authentic environment.

).

This integrated strategy not only supported the needs of the 2000 Summer Olympics but also established a long-term model for sustainable urban development, setting a benchmark for future large-scale events.

4.3. Gardens by the Bay, Singapore

Gardens by the Bay in Singapore serves as a benchmark for integrating environmental resilience, visual innovation, and cultural identity within the urban landscape. Conceived to embody Singapore’s vision as a “City in a Garden”, it exemplifies the effective application of a synthesis-based approach to plant scheme design. Below is a detailed analysis supported by in-text citations.

The ecological component of the park is defined by its innovative integration of sustainable technologies and ecological design, exemplified by the iconic Supertrees and advanced resource management systems. The Supertrees, towering between 25 and 50 m, are vertical gardens that host over 200 plant species, including ferns, orchids, and bromeliads. These structures not only enhance biodiversity and provide shade but also serve functional roles as photovoltaic cells for harnessing solar energy and as air exhaust systems for the conservatories, showcasing a seamless blend of ecological functionality and architectural ingenuity [40]. Complementing these features, the park employs sustainable design elements such as automated irrigation systems, water recycling, and energy-efficient technologies, all aimed at minimizing the environmental impact while ensuring optimal conditions for plant growth [41]. Together, these components underscore the park’s commitment to ecological sustainability and innovation, creating a model for future urban landscapes.

The aesthetic component of the park is highlighted by two iconic conservatories, the Flower Dome and the Cloud Forest, which showcase an impressive array of plant diversity while creating immersive and visually captivating experiences for visitors. The Flower Dome houses approximately 87,000 plants from 400 species and varieties, featuring flora from Mediterranean and semi-arid regions. Its vibrant displays provide a stunning visual journey through global plant diversity, combining education with aesthetic appeal [42]. Similarly, the Cloud Forest is home to over 130,000 plants representing more than 400 species, replicating the cool, moist conditions of tropical mountain regions. Its mist-filled environment, complete with cascading waterfalls, creates a lush and mesmerizing space that captivates visitors with its beauty and ecological richness [42,43]. Together, these conservatories demonstrate how aesthetic design can be seamlessly integrated with ecological education, offering a compelling and engaging visitor experience.

The cultural representation of the park is exemplified through its Heritage Gardens and Themed Gardens, which celebrate Singapore’s multicultural identity and global connections. The Heritage Gardens feature over 86,000 plants from 633 species, symbolizing the country’s rich cultural heritage. Thematic displays within these gardens highlight plants that hold cultural significance for Singapore’s major ethnic groups, including the Malay, Chinese, and Indian communities, fostering a deeper appreciation for the nation’s diverse cultural roots [42]. Complementing this, the Themed Gardens, such as the Mediterranean and South African gardens, showcase plants from specific regions, reflecting Singapore’s multicultural identity and its ties to the global community [44,45,46]. These gardens seamlessly integrate cultural narratives into the landscape, offering visitors an opportunity to explore the intersection of cultural heritage and botanical diversity.

The hybrid integration at Gardens by the Bay showcases a seamless blend of biodiversity conservation, educational outreach, and a lasting legacy of sustainable urban development (

Table 5. Hybrid approach to plant scheme development in Gardens by the Bay, Singapore, urban landscape.

Framework Component	Plant Category	Examples of Plants and Features	Purpose and Role
Ecological Component	Sustainable and Native Plant Systems	- Supertrees hosting over 200 species of plants (e.g., ferns, orchids, bromeliads) - Automated irrigation and energy-efficient systems - Integration of native and adaptive plants	Supports biodiversity, minimizes environmental impact, and showcases innovative ecological solutions [40,41].
Aesthetic Component	Conservatory and Thematic Plant Displays	- Flower Dome with 87,000 plants from 400 species (Mediterranean and semi-arid flora) - Cloud Forest with 130,000 plants replicating tropical mountain regions	Creates immersive and visually captivating landscapes that engage visitors [42].
Cultural Representation	Heritage and Themed Gardens	- Heritage Gardens showcasing 86,000 plants from 633 species (Malay, Chinese, Indian influences) - Themed gardens (Mediterranean and South African flora)	Reflects Singapore’s multicultural identity and connections to global regions [44,45,46].
Hybrid Integration	Ecological and Cultural Integration	- Supertrees functioning as energy and air systems with vibrant vegetation - Educational outreach through guided tours and interactive exhibits	Balances ecological functionality, cultural storytelling, and public engagement, promoting sustainable urban development [41,47].

). By integrating native and exotic plant species, the park supports urban biodiversity and enhances ecosystem resilience. Native plants were carefully curated to harmonize with adaptive and ornamental species, resulting in a resilient and ecologically balanced urban ecosystem [47]. Additionally, Gardens by the Bay functions as an educational hub, raising awareness about plant diversity, conservation, and sustainable practices. Guided tours and interactive exhibits engage visitors, fostering a deeper understanding of biodiversity and the importance of sustainable urban development [44,45,46]. The park’s impact extends beyond its ecological and educational goals, as it has become a global attraction, drawing millions of visitors annually while serving as a model for integrating sustainability into urban landscapes. By balancing ecological functionality, aesthetic appeal, and cultural storytelling, Gardens by the Bay demonstrates the potential of the hybrid approach to set a new standard for urban landscapes worldwide [41].

While each case study demonstrates the effective application of ecological, aesthetic, functional, and hybrid approaches independently, a comparative analysis reveals overlapping and mutually reinforcing relationships among these dimensions (

Table 6. Case study comparison table.

Case Study	Ecological Focus	Aesthetic Focus	Cultural Focus	Functional Aspects	Keywords
Expo 2020 Dubai	Adaptive planting in arid conditions; native and halophytic species integrated	High visual impact through vibrant ornamental species and spatial drama	Date Palm and Ghaf tree reflecting regional identity	Shade provision, erosion control, thermal mitigation	Resilience, Identity, Aridity
Sydney Olympic Park	Large-scale native vegetation and wetland restoration	Subtle integration of native flora with landform and reforestation aesthetics	Aboriginal heritage integrated through preserved sites and public art	Stormwater management, biodiversity corridors	Restoration, Heritage, Functionality
Gardens by the Bay	Biodiversity through vertical gardens and native forest simulations	Immersive and iconic landscape structures with floral thematics	Cultural zones symbolizing global flora and community narratives	Energy efficiency, air purification, water reuse systems	Innovation, Immersion, Sustainability

). Expo 2020 Dubai foregrounds aesthetic innovation while reinforcing cultural legibility through adaptive and symbolic species, whereas Sydney Olympic Park anchors its design in ecological restoration, complemented by culturally meaningful installations and reforestation aesthetics. Gardens by the Bay advances technological and ecological integration, framing aesthetic and cultural themes through immersive visitor experiences. Despite their distinct emphases, all three case studies converge in their capacity to harmonize environmental performance, visual impact, and cultural narratives through layered planting strategies. This interrelationship supports the central tenet of the proposed synthesis-based framework—that successful plant schemes for global events require multidimensional alignment across ecological resilience, symbolic representation, and experiential design. Extracted thematic keywords from each case—such as “resilience”, “identity”, “immersion”, and “functionality”—underscore how integrated planting schemes contribute to both localized authenticity and globally competitive urban image-making. This comparative insight affirms the framework’s versatility and scalability for the FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities.

5. Contextual Analysis of FIFA World Cup 2034 Host Cities Aligned with the Proposed Framework

The FIFA World Cup 2034, hosted by Saudi Arabia, spans five cities—Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, Abha, and Neom—each offering a distinctive typology aligned with the proposed hybrid framework for urban and landscape design. Riyadh, the capital, represents a progressive desert metropolis characterized by a hot arid climate, xerophytic vegetation, and rapid urbanization. The city’s ongoing mega-projects, such as the King Abdullah Financial District, highlight its role as a hub of modernization and innovation while maintaining desert-inspired aesthetics in its green spaces [29,48]. Jeddah, situated along the Red Sea, reflects Saudi Arabia’s maritime heritage through its coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs and mangroves. Known for its historical significance as a gateway to Makkah, Jeddah is home to UNESCO-listed Al-Balad, combining vibrant waterfront aesthetics with its economic role as a center of trade, logistics, and tourism [49].

Al Khobar, located along the Arabian Gulf, demonstrates a seamless integration of urban resilience and coastal biodiversity, featuring mangroves, salt flats, and sustainable urban planning. The city serves as an economic hub for energy and petrochemicals, balancing coastal aesthetics with modern connectivity [50]. Abha, in the Asir highlands, stands out for its cooler climate and biodiversity, offering lush mountain landscapes that contrast with Saudi Arabia’s desert regions. As a center of tribal traditions and cultural heritage, Abha has emerged as a key eco-tourism destination focusing on heritage preservation and sustainable growth [51]. Finally, Neom, the futuristic city along the Red Sea, symbolizes Saudi Arabia’s bold vision for sustainable urbanism. Its pristine ecosystems, including coral reefs and mountainous terrains, are integrated with cutting-edge technologies and renewable energy solutions, aligning with Vision 2030’s objectives to redefine urban living [52]. The following table presents a quantitative landscape profile of these five hosting cities in KSA, highlighting key spatial, climatic, and botanical metrics that underpin their integrated design strategies (

Table 7. Quantitative landscape profile of the five hosting cities in KSA.

Category	Riyadh	Jeddah	Al Khobar	Abha	Neom
Geolocation	24.7136° N, 46.6753° E, Elev. ~612 m	21.4858° N, 39.1925° E, Elev. ~12 m	26.2794° N, 50.2084° E, Elev. ~6 m	18.2164° N, 42.5053° E, Elev. ~2270 m	28.2669° N, 34.8706° E, Elev. ~50 m
Climatic Zone	Hot desert (BWh)	Hot desert (BWh), coastal	Hot desert (BWh), coastal	Semi-arid to temperate (BSk)	Hot desert (BWh), Red Sea coast
Native Plant Coverage	50% (~120,000 m2)	45% (~100,000 m2)	40% (~92,000 m2)	55% (~105,000 m2)	35% (~70,000 m2)
Adaptive Plant Coverage	30% (~72,000 m2)	35% (~77,000 m2)	35% (~80,000 m2)	30% (~57,000 m2)	40% (~80,000 m2)
Ornamental Plant Coverage	20% (~48,000 m2)	20% (~44,000 m2)	25% (~58,000 m2)	15% (~29,000 m2)	25% (~50,000 m2)
Symbolic Cultural Species	Phoenix dactylifera, Acacia tortilis	Ziziphus spina-christi, Rhizophora mucronata	Avicennia marina, Phoenix dactylifera	Juniperus procera, Olea europaea	Artemisia herba-alba, Lavandula angustifolia
Key Cultural Plant References	Date Palms in public squares, Acacia in dry parks	Mangrove zones, Sidr Trees in heritage areas	Grey Mangroves for coastal resilience, Date Palms in boulevards	Terraced landscapes with Juniper and Wild Olive groves	Futuristic green corridors using native desert herbs

).

Collectively, these cities exemplify the spatial, cultural, and ecological heterogeneity of Saudi Arabia, offering a representative spectrum of the nation’s regional typologies (

Table 8. Contextual analysis of FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities aligned with proposed framework.

City	Ecological Context	Cultural Context	Aesthetic Context	Urban and Economic Context	Distinctive Typology
Riyadh	Desert biome with hot arid climate; xerophytic vegetation; minimal rainfall.	Modern political and cultural hub; blends traditional and contemporary Saudi elements.	Desert-inspired landscapes with bold and structured urban green spaces.	Rapid urbanization; mega-projects like King Abdullah Financial District emphasize modernization.	A progressive desert metropolis reflecting Saudi innovation.
Jeddah	Coastal ecosystem along the Red Sea; coral reefs, mangroves, and saline-adaptive vegetation.	Historical maritime gateway; home to UNESCO-listed Al-Balad and rich cultural heritage.	Vibrant coastal aesthetic with waterfront development and historical districts.	Economic center; trade, logistics, and tourism focus with modern infrastructure.	A historical coastal city combining cultural depth with maritime significance.
Al Khobar	Arabian Gulf coastal zone; features mangroves, salt flats, and biodiversity-rich wetlands.	Blend of local traditions and cosmopolitan culture influenced by Gulf states proximity.	Seamless integration of modern urban design with coastal aesthetic features.	Energy and petrochemical hub; urban planning integrates coastal resilience.	A thriving coastal economic center blending connectivity with sustainability.
Abha	Highland ecosystem; cooler climate; diverse vegetation and biodiversity hotspot.	Strong tribal traditions; vibrant cultural heritage with unique crafts and architecture.	Green mountain aesthetics with cultural motifs in urban landscaping.	Cultural and eco-tourism hub focusing on heritage preservation and sustainable growth.	A highland cultural city characterized by its lush landscape and traditions.
Neom	Red Sea coastline with pristine ecosystems; coral reefs, desert, and mountainous terrains.	Represents futuristic Saudi vision; blends modernity with cultural heritage symbols.	Cutting-edge urban aesthetics combining ecological and innovative technologies.	Technological hub focusing on renewable energy and sustainability; aligns with Vision 2030.	A futuristic eco-city pioneering innovation and sustainability.

). The strategic application of the hybrid framework in their urban and landscape planning underscores the integration of environmental functionality, formal design quality, and socio-cultural legibility. This alignment positions Saudi Arabia at the forefront of innovative, context-responsive urban development within the scope of globally significant initiatives.

Proposed Plant Selections Aligned with the Hybrid Framework for FIFA World Cup 2034 Host Cities

The selection of plants for the five cities hosting the World Cup in Saudi Arabia demonstrates a strategic approach that balances ecological, cultural, aesthetic, and hybrid considerations, tailored to the unique environments of each city (

Table 9. Plants selection in FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities aligned with proposed framework.

City	Plants for Ecological Considerations	Plants for Cultural Considerations	Plants for Aesthetic Considerations	Plants Reflecting Hybrid Approach
Riyadh	- Acacia species - Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr Tree) - Salvadora persica (Miswak)	- Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) - Terminalia catappa (Indian almond) - Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind)	- Bougainvillea glabra (Paperflower) - Leucophyllum frutescens	- Integration of Acacia for ecological benefits and Bougainvillea for vibrant aesthetic appeal, Leucophyllum frutescens for its silvery appearance against reddish (dunes) background
Jeddah	- Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) - Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove) - Halophyte species for saline tolerance	- Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) - Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr Tree) - Azadirachta indica - Hyphaene thebaica (Doum palm)	- Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Chinese Hibiscus) - Frangipani (Plumeria)	- Combination of mangrove species for coastal restoration and Frangipani for ornamental aesthetics.
Al Khobar	- Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) - Suaeda monoica (Seablite) - Atriplex halimus (Saltbush)	- Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) - Terminalia catappa (Indian almond) - Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind)	- Bougainvillea spectabilis (Great Bougainvillea) - Rosa damascena (Damask Rose) - Delonix regia and Cassia species	- Integration of Saltbush for coastal resilience and Bougainvillea for vibrant urban spaces.
Abha	- Juniperus procera (African Juniper) - Olea europaea (Wild Olive) - Native grasses - Dodonaea viscosa (Hopseed Bush)	- Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) - Punica granatum (Pomegranate Tree)	- Rosa chinensis (Chinese Rose) - Camellia sinensis (Tea Plant) - Jacaranda mimosifolia	- Combination of Juniperus for ecological balance and Rosa for highland aesthetics.
Neom	- Artemisia herba-alba (White Wormwood) - Atriplex halimus (Saltbush) - Salvadora persica (Miswak)	- Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) - Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr Tree) - Hyphaene thebaica (Doum palm)	- Citrus limon (Lemon Tree) - Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender) - Callistemon viminalis (weeping bottlebrush Tree) - Cocos nucifera (Coconut palm)	- Integration of Artemisia for ecological resilience and Lavandula for innovative aesthetic features.

). In Riyadh, plants such as Acacia species (Acacia), Ziziphus spina-christi (Sidr Tree), and Salvadora persica (Miswak) address ecological needs, while culturally significant species like Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm), Terminalia catappa (Indian almond), and Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind) highlight heritage. Aesthetic enhancement is achieved through vibrant choices such as Bougainvillea glabra and Leucophyllum frutescens, with a hybrid approach integrating Acacia for ecological benefits and Bougainvillea for visual appeal. Jeddah prioritizes coastal restoration with species like Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove), alongside cultural staples like the Date Palm and Sidr and Neem (Azadirachta indica) Tree. Aesthetic choices such as Hyphaene thebaica (Doum palm), Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, and Frangipani (Plumeria) are paired with mangroves for a hybrid approach blending ecological and ornamental functions.

In Al Khobar, Avicennia marina, Suaeda monoica (Seablite), and Atriplex halimus (Saltbush) ensure coastal resilience, while Date Palm, Terminalia catappa (Indian almond), and Pithecellobium dulce (Manila tamarind) maintain cultural relevance. The city’s aesthetics are enriched with Bougainvillea spectabilis and Rosa damascena (Damask Rose), integrating Saltbush for ecological stability and Bougainvillea, Delonix regia, and cassia species for urban vibrancy. Abha, characterized by its highland environment, incorporates ecological staples such as Juniperus procera (African Juniper), Olea europaea (Wild Olive), and Dodonaea viscosa (Hopseed Bush) alongside cultural symbols like the Date Palm and Punica granatum (Pomegranate Tree). Aesthetic additions, including Jacaranda mimosifolia, Rosa chinensis, and Camellia sinensis (Tea Plant), balance the ecological and visual needs, with Juniperus contributing to ecological balance and Rosa enhancing highland beauty. Neom embraces innovative landscaping with Artemisia herba-alba (White Wormwood), and Atriplex halimus for ecological resilience, paired with culturally significant species such as Date Palm, Hyphaene thebaica (Doum palm), and Sidr Tree. Aesthetic enhancements feature Callistemon viminalis (weeping bottlebrush Tree), Cocos nucifera (Coconut palm), and Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender), with a hybrid strategy integrating Artemisia for resilience and Lavender for cutting-edge aesthetic appeal. This comprehensive plant scheme reflects the cities’ diverse ecological contexts, cultural narratives, and global aspirations.

6. Al Khobar: A Model for Hybrid Urban and Landscape Integration

Al Khobar, a key host city for the FIFA World Cup 2034, offers a compelling case study in coastal urbanism that balances ecological resilience, cultural representation, and aesthetic innovation. Strategically located in Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province along the Arabian Gulf, Al Khobar has undergone significant urban transformation while maintaining its ecological integrity and cultural identity. As an economic hub for the petrochemical and energy industries, the city serves as a bridge between modernity and tradition, reflecting its dual role as a global player and cultural steward [50]. This transformation aligns with the proposed hybrid framework, which integrates ecological, cultural, and aesthetic considerations into urban landscape design (Figure 2 and

Table 10. Plant scheme in Al Khobar aligned with proposed framework.

Category	Plant Name	Scientific Name	Purpose
Ecological Considerations	Grey Mangrove	Avicennia marina	Coastal restoration and marine habitat support.
	Red Mangrove	Rhizophora mucronata	Stabilizes shorelines and protects against erosion.
	Hopseed Bush	Dodonaea viscosa	Adapted to rocky terrain, stabilizes soils on slopes.
	Saltbush	Atriplex halimus	Reduces soil salinity and improves water retention.
	Seablite	Suaeda monoica	Adapted to saline conditions.
	Miswak Tree	Salvadora persica	Reduces desertification and stabilizes soil.
	Athel Tree	Tamarix aphylla	Windbreak and erosion control.
Cultural Considerations	Date Palm	Phoenix dactylifera	Iconic cultural symbol and shade provider.
	Doum palm	Hyphaene thebaica	Native to western coastal and lowlands, picturesque shade, and medicinal uses.
	Manila tamarind	Pithecellobium dulce	Represents resilience and cultural heritage, edible, and medicinal uses.
	Indian almond	Terminalia catappa	Shade, edible, and medicinal uses.
	Sidr Tree	Ziziphus spina-christi	Used in traditional medicine and religious contexts.
	Pomegranate Tree	Punica granatum	Linked to Arabian traditions.
	Neem Tree	Azadirachta indica	Historically the first tree planted in old Jeddah.
	Desert Gourd	Citrullus colocynthis	Reflects local flora and cultural narratives.
Aesthetic Considerations	Great Bougainvillea	Bougainvillea spectabilis	Bright colors for urban beautification.
	Chinese Hibiscus	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis	Ornamental plant with tropical flowers.
	Frangipani	Plumeria	Creates tropical aesthetics for waterfront areas.
	Damask Rose	Rosa damascena	Traditional ornamental rose with cultural significance.
	Oleander	Nerium oleander	Hardy ornamental shrub for public spaces.
	Weeping bottlebrush Tree	Callistemon viminalis	Attractive focality for public spaces (individual or groups).
	Coconut palm	Cocos nucifera	Elegant palm well adapted to coastal areas.
	Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	Adds fragrance and color to urban landscaping.
		Jacaranda mimosifolia	Unique for attractiveness and long-lasting violet-colored flowers.
		Delonix regia	Adds colorful effects to the context.
		Cassia species	Adds colorful effects to the context.
		Leucophyllum frutescens	With its silvery appearance, creates great contrast to other plants and underneath ground.
Hybrid Approach	Acacia	Acacia species	Combines ecological benefits with visual impact.
	Aloe Plant	Aloe vera	Drought-tolerant and culturally significant for its medicinal use.
	White Wormwood	Artemisia herba-alba	Native plant with ecological and visual roles.
	Sebesten Tree	Cordia myxa	Used in traditional landscapes and biodiversity projects.
	Atlantic Pistachio	Pistacia atlantica	Adds ecological and ornamental value.
	African Juniper	Juniperus procera	Evergreen for structural and aesthetic appeal.
	Flame Tree	Delonix regia	Offers shade and striking red flowers for urban spaces.
	Yellow Trumpetbush	Tecoma stans	Vibrant flowers and adaptability to urban conditions.

).

Al Khobar’s ecological framework is shaped by its coastal environment, characterized by mangroves, salt flats, and halophytic vegetation that thrive in saline conditions. Native species such as Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove) are pivotal for coastal restoration, biodiversity conservation, and shoreline stabilization. These ecosystems act as natural buffers against erosion while providing critical habitats for marine and avian species [53,54]. Furthermore, halophytes like Atriplex halimus (Saltbush) and Suaeda monoica (Seablite) play an essential role in reducing soil salinity and enhancing water retention, thereby supporting ecological health [55]. The city’s efforts to integrate these native species into urban landscapes reflect a commitment to sustainability and resilience, aligning with global ecological goals outlined by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [8].

Al Khobar’s cultural identity blends traditional Arabian heritage with cosmopolitan influences, shaped by its proximity to Bahrain and its role as a gateway to the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Iconic plants like the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera), a symbol of Arabian culture, are deeply embedded in the city’s landscape, reflecting its historical and cultural significance [19,20]. Similarly, the Azadirachta indica (Neem Tree), valued for its resilience and heritage, is incorporated into urban spaces to create a sense of place and continuity [10,56,57]. Public spaces such as the Corniche exemplify this cultural integration, where traditional elements are blended with modern design to foster a connection between residents and their environment. These cultural symbols not only preserve heritage but also serve as platforms for community engagement and expression, enhancing the city’s identity.

The aesthetic dimension of Al Khobar’s urban landscape is enhanced through the integration of vibrant ornamental and adaptive species. Bougainvillea spectabilis (Great Bougainvillea) and Rosa damascena (Damask Rose) are prominently featured to create visually engaging urban spaces that appeal to local and international audiences. Waterfront developments further enhance the city’s visual identity by incorporating promenades, lush greenery, and water features, creating a harmonious blend of natural and built environments [50]. These design elements not only elevate Al Khobar’s aesthetic appeal but also position the city as an attractive destination for tourism and international events, particularly the FIFA World Cup 2034.

To consolidate the alignment between the proposed framework and its application in Al Khobar, it is essential to underscore the evaluative dimensions of the implemented plant scheme. The integration of native halophytic and mangrove species demonstrates a high degree of ecological coherence, contributing to shoreline stabilization, biodiversity enhancement, and climate resilience. Culturally significant species such as Phoenix dactylifera and Azadirachta indica reinforce the city’s historical and symbolic narratives, while the inclusion of visually prominent ornamentals like Bougainvillea spectabilis and Delonix regia ensures spatial vibrancy and public appeal. This tri-layered composition—ecological, cultural, and aesthetic—reflects the operational viability of the synthesis-based framework. The plant scheme’s structure affirms its capacity to meet the multidimensional objectives of sustainability, identity, and experiential quality, positioning Al Khobar as a scalable and contextually adaptive model for hybrid landscape integration in global urban events.

Implementation Strategy for Al Khobar’s Hybrid Plant Scheme

The implementation strategy for Al Khobar’s synthesis-based framework is structured to respond comprehensively to the city’s ecological, cultural, and aesthetic priorities. By aligning plant selection with the city’s coastal ecology, heritage narratives, and spatial design objectives, the strategy enables the creation of multifunctional landscapes that embody both sustainability and contextual relevance.

For coastal zones, priority is given to species that tolerate coastal conditions (high salinity, and saline splash), support biodiversity, stabilize shorelines, and enhance ecological resilience. Key species include Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove), which are essential for protecting against erosion and providing habitats for marine and bird species [53,54]. Complementary halophytic species, such as Atriplex halimus (Saltbush) and Suaeda monoica (Seablite), contribute to soil salinity reduction and water retention, further supporting the ecological health of these areas [55,56,57].

Public spaces, such as parks, plazas, and the Corniche, incorporate species that reflect Al Khobar’s cultural heritage while enhancing visual appeal. Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) and Azadirachta indica (Neem Tree) symbolize resilience and cultural significance, providing shade and a sense of continuity with the region’s traditions [10,29]. These are complemented by ornamental species such as Bougainvillea spectabilis (Great Bougainvillea), which adds vibrant colors, and Rosa damascena (Damask Rose), which integrates aesthetic value with cultural symbolism. These plants create inviting and visually engaging spaces that blend heritage with modern urban design.

Urban streetscapes prioritize species that enhance pedestrian comfort and visual interest. Hardy ornamental species like Nerium oleander (Oleander) and Frangipani (Plumeria) are used to provide vibrant blooms and tropical aesthetics. Delonix regia (Flame Tree) is integrated for its shade-providing canopy and striking red flowers, making streets more attractive and pedestrian-friendly [8]. These species ensure that streetscapes are not only functional but also visually stimulating for both residents and visitors.

Parks and recreation areas incorporate multifunctional species that balance ecological sustainability with visitor engagement. Acacia tortilis (Umbrella Thorn Acacia) and Tecoma stans (Yellow Trumpetbush) offer ecological benefits such as soil stabilization and adaptability, while contributing vibrant blooms and structural diversity to park landscapes. Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender) enhances the sensory experience with its fragrance and aesthetic charm, creating spaces that are both functional and inviting.

The hybrid approach ensures that Al Khobar’s landscapes address multiple objectives. For example, mangroves in coastal areas align with ecological priorities while serving as visual symbols of sustainability. Similarly, Date Palms and Bougainvillea in public spaces blend cultural and aesthetic considerations, reinforcing Al Khobar’s identity while making spaces visually engaging. Multifunctional species like Acacia tortilis and Delonix regia are strategically placed to provide ecological benefits while enhancing the urban aesthetic.

7. Conclusions

The proposed hybrid theoretical framework emerges as a pioneering approach to plant scheme design for globally significant urban events, uniting ecological performance, visual identity, and cultural meaning within a coherent and adaptable model. It transcends conventional landscape strategies by harmonizing native and adaptive species with ornamental plantings, producing multifunctional environments that are both locally grounded and globally resonant. At its core, the framework emphasizes the interplay between biodiversity resilience, resource efficiency, cultural symbolism, and aesthetic impact—positioning planting design as a strategic medium for advancing urban narratives and environmental performance. By embedding culturally significant flora into public space design, the framework fosters place-specific authenticity while addressing the experiential expectations of diverse audiences.

Central to this contribution is the development of an evaluation framework capable of systematically assessing planting strategies through the integration of ecological functionality, cultural resonance, and visual coherence. Designed to operate across diverse climatic and socio-cultural contexts, this evaluative mechanism enables both the formulation and critical appraisal of landscape schemes that are multifunctional, context-sensitive, and strategically aligned with city branding objectives. In doing so, it not only guides the design of resilient and symbolically rich urban landscapes but also offers a replicable methodology for assessing the performance of planting strategies in preparation for high-profile international events such as the FIFA World Cup 2034. Ultimately, the framework provides a scientifically grounded tool for landscape architects, urban planners, and policymakers seeking to unify environmental sustainability with spatial identity and competitive urban imagery.

The case studies analyzed in this study, including Expo 2020 Dubai, Sydney Olympic Park, and Gardens by the Bay, demonstrate the efficacy of the cross-disciplinary design paradigm in addressing the multidimensional demands of worldwide events. Expo 2020 Dubai’s integration of native plants such as the Azadirachta indica (Neem Tree), alongside adaptive and ornamental species, showcases how the tripartite planning model can balance sustainability, aesthetics, and cultural representation. Similarly, Sydney Olympic Park highlights how ecological restoration through native plant communities can coexist with visually engaging and culturally rich designs, creating a legacy of environmental stewardship and community engagement. Gardens by the Bay exemplifies the hybrid approach through its seamless integration of ecological innovation, aesthetic diversity, and cultural storytelling, setting a benchmark for sustainable urban landscapes. These examples validate the practicality and adaptability of the hybrid framework in diverse environmental and cultural contexts, reinforcing its relevance for designing plant schemes in the unique landscapes of Saudi Arabia.

The application of this framework to the five host cities of the FIFA World Cup 2034—Riyadh, Jeddah, Al Khobar, Abha, and Neom—illustrates its potential to reflect the Kingdom’s diverse ecological, cultural, and aesthetic identities. Each city offers a distinctive typology, from Riyadh’s desert-inspired modernity to Jeddah’s maritime heritage, Al Khobar’s coastal resilience, Abha’s lush highlands, and Neom’s futuristic vision of sustainability. By tailoring plant schemes to the unique environmental conditions and cultural narratives of each city, the framework ensures that the landscapes resonate with both local and global audiences. For instance, Riyadh can emphasize structured xerophytic greenery, Jeddah can integrate mangroves and salt-tolerant flora, while Neom can pioneer innovative ecological technologies. Collectively, these city-specific applications showcase how the multifunctional landscape framework can align city branding with regional distinctiveness, ecological responsibility, and global competitiveness.

Al Khobar, as one of the host cities, exemplifies the detailed application of the hybrid framework. The city’s plant scheme reflects its coastal ecosystem, cultural heritage, and urban aspirations. Native species such as Avicennia marina (Grey Mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (Red Mangrove) enhance biodiversity and shoreline stabilization, while culturally significant plants like Phoenix dactylifera (Date Palm) and Azadirachta indica (Neem Tree) reinforce Al Khobar’s heritage and identity. Ornamental species such as Bougainvillea spectabilis and Rosa damascena elevate the city’s aesthetic appeal, creating vibrant urban spaces that engage residents and visitors alike. This integration of ecological, cultural, and aesthetic elements ensures that Al Khobar’s landscapes not only meet the functional and branding goals of the FIFA World Cup 2034 but also leave a lasting legacy of sustainable urban development. The hybrid framework, applied comprehensively, transforms Al Khobar into a dynamic model for future urban landscapes, balancing tradition with innovation in the global spotlight.

To advance its practical utility, the proposed evaluation framework can be further refined through the integration of quantifiable performance metrics and spatial analysis. Future research may focus on developing indicator-based assessment tools to evaluate ecological outcomes, cultural resonance, and visual impact across diverse urban contexts. Moreover, post-implementation studies in the FIFA World Cup 2034 host cities would offer empirical validation, enabling the framework’s continuous calibration and broader applicability in global urban landscape planning.