Interactions between Gut Microbiota and Natural Bioactive Polysaccharides in Metabolic Diseases: Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Human Gut Microbiota
3. The Influence of Human Metabolic Diseases on Gut Microbiota
3.1. Obesity
3.2. Type II Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM)
3.3. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)
3.4. Cardiovascular Diseases (CVD)
4. The Role of Gut Microbiota-Derived Metabolites in Human Disease Treatment
4.1. Short-Chain Fatty Acids (SCFAs)
4.2. Bile Acids (BAs)
4.3. Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO)
4.4. Tryptophan Metabolites
4.5. Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs)
5. BPs and Their Therapeutic Potential
5.1. Definition and Classification of BPs
5.2. Chemical Structure of BPs
5.3. Biological Activities or Physiological Functions of BPs
5.3.1. Immunoregulatory
5.3.2. Regulate Blood Sugar
5.3.3. Regulate Blood Pressure
5.3.4. Hypolipidemic Effect
5.3.5. Antioxidation
5.3.6. Antitumor Activities
5.3.7. Hepatoprotective Effect
5.3.8. Antibacterial and Antiviral Effects
5.4. Mechanism of Actions of Gut Microbiota Mediated BPs in Metabolic Disease Treatment
5.4.1. Treating Obesity
Bioactive Polysaccharides | Monosaccharide Composition and Molecular Weight (Mw) | Dosage | Study Approaches | Major Findings | Mode of Action–Gut Microbiota | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Auricularia auricula polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (50.84%), glucose (21.61%), xylose (9.24%), galactose (8.58%), glucuronic acid (5.78%) and fucose (3.96%); Mw: 1065.2 kDa | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Reduced body weight gain; Attenuated high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorders | Decreased Mucispirillum and increased Peptococcus, Muribaculum, Anaerovorax, and Papillibacter | [207] |
Auricularia auricula polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (77.0%), galacturonic acid (12.8%), fucose (5.2%), xylose (3.2%), galactose (1.4%), and rhamnose (0.3%); Mw: 1210 kDa | 50 and 100 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Ameliorated high-fat diet-induced IR, glucose, and lipid metabolism disorders; Protected intestinal barrier function | Reduced F/B ratio; Promoted Roseburia, Bacteroides, and Allobaculum; Increased levels of SCFAs, folate, and cobalamin | [197] |
Astragalus polysaccharides | - | 1000 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice | Reduced body weight, fat accumulation; Enhanced insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis | Enriched Bacteroides | [209] |
Sargassum fusiforme fucoidan | Composed of carbohydrate (81.33%), uronic acid (12.53%), and sulfate (17.36%) | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice | Reduced fasting blood glucose and IR index along with improved glucose tolerance; Elevated hepatic antioxidant enzymes | Increased the abundance and diversity of gut microbiota | [210] |
Ganoderma lucidum mycelium polysaccharides | Mw: >300 kDa | 4% and 8% | High-fat diet-induced obese mice | Reduced body weight, inflammation, and IR; Improve intestinal barrier integrity | Decreased F/B ratio; Enhanced Parabacteroides goldsteinii, Bacteroides spp., Anaerotruncus colihominis, Roseburia hominis, Clostridium methylpentosum; Reduces metabolic endotoxemia | [211] |
Hirsutella sinensis polysaccharides | Mw: >300 kDa | 20 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice | Enhanced gut integrity, reduced intestinal and systemic inflammation, and improved insulin sensitivity and lipid metabolism | Selectively promoted the growth of Parabacteroides goldsteinii | [212] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | - | 150 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mouse model | Inhibited serum and hepatic lipid metabolic disorders; Alleviated hepatic steatosis and gut microbiota dysbiosis | Increased Alloprevotella, Parabacteroides, Parasutterella, Bacteroides, decreasing Blautia, Enterorhabdus, and Roseburia; Increased fecal butyric acid and BAs levels | [213] |
Ganoderma amboinense polysaccharides | Composed of glucose (52.54%), mannose (15.78%), galactose (27.16%) and fucose (4.21%) | 100 and 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Prevented weight gain and fat accumulation; Improved glucose tolerance; Reduced serum and liver lipid concentrations and inflammation | Prevented obesity by regulating the abundance of Parabacteroides, Bacteroides, and Lachnospiracea_incertae_sedis; Altered microbial lipid metabolism, glycan biosynthesis | [175] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | - | 150 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese golden hamster model | Improved blood lipid profiles; Elevated the relative abundances of beneficial bacteria | Enhanced Prevotella, Oscillibacter, and SCFA-producers | [195] |
Edible brown seaweed Undaria pinnatifida | Composed of mannuronic acid and guluronic acid at a ratio of 0.7; Mw: 800 kDa | 300 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Improved body composition, fat deposition in body tissues and organs, lipid abnormality, and inflammatory response | Increase in Bacteroidales and reduction in both Clostridiales and Lactobacillales | [214] |
Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | Composed of D-mannose, L-rhamnose, D-glucose, D-galactosamine and D-xylose | 0.2% in drank water | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Decreased serum total triglycerides and total cholesterol levels; Elevated serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased SCFA-producing bacteria Lacticigenium, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and Butyricicoccus; Increased fecal SCFAs level | [174] |
Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | Composed of fucose, rhamnose, amino-galactose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and fructose with the molar ratio of 0.02:0.08:0.03:0.11:46.67:0.37:4.72; Mw: 3.74 kDa | 150 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Increased weight loss, lowering FFA levels in serum and liver; Increased adiponectin and decreased fatty acid synthase gene expression in liver | Increased gut microbial β-diversity; Reduced F/B ratio; Enhanced Faecalibaculum, Pantoea, and uncultured_bacterium_f_Muribaculaceae | [202] |
Saccharina japonica fucan | Composed of Fuc (5.2%), 1,3-linked Fuc (63.6%), 1,4-linked Fuc (3.2%), 1,2-linked Fuc (0.9%), 1,3,4-linked Fuc (5.9%) and 1,2,3-linked Fuc (21.2%); Mw: 5.1 kDa | 0.6 mg/mL solution in drinking water | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Suppressed high-fat diet-induced obesity, blood glucose metabolic dysfunction, dyslipidemia, and gut microbiota dysbiosis | Enhanced Bacteroides sartorii and Bacteroides acidifaciens; Increased fucoidan-degrading bacteria | [215] |
Laminaria japonica fucoidan | Composed of fucose, galactose, mannose, xylose, glucose, and galacturonic acid in a molar ratio of 7.5:1.0:0.6:0.2:0.3:0.3; Mw: 627.5 kDa | 300 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Ameliorated body weight gain, fat accumulation, IR, and adipocyte hypertrophy | Reduced F/B ratio; Greater relative abundance of the phylum Bacteroidetes and the families Muribaculaceae and Bacteroidaceae; Enhanced SCFAs production | [216] |
Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | Composed of rhamnose, galacturonic acid, and glucose in a respective mass ratio of 11.6:10.1:78.2; Mw: 31.7–1700 kDa | 75 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Induced weight loss, reduced liver fat accumulation, reduced TC and LDL-C levels, reduced intestinal tissue inflammation | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Bacteroides acidifaciens, Lactobacillus intestinalis, and Lactobacillus murinus | [203] |
Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | Composed of high content of uronic acid and fucose; Mw: 600 kDa | 0.25% in diet | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Reduced body weight gain; Reduced fat accumulation in the liver and adipose tissues | Increased gut microbial diversity and the abundance of Rikenellaceae and Bacteroidales S24_7 group; Increased gut microbial SCFAs production | [217] |
Microalgae polysaccharides | Composed of rhamnose (38.6%), glucosamine (21.23%) and glucuronic acid (10.56%); Mw: 660 or 3640 kDa | 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Protection against overweight, glucose tolerance impairment, dyslipidemia, and fat deposition in the liver | Increased Clostridia, Bacterioidia, and Mollicutes and decreased Actinobacteria and Verrucomicrobia; Altered metabolism of SCFAs, secondary BAs, and trimethylamine | [218] |
Seabuckthorn polysaccharides | Composed of rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, and galacturonic acid, the molar ratios of which were 2.1:44.6:19.7:28.2:5.3; Mw: 9940 Da | 0.1% in diet | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Reduced body weight gain, serum lipid level, and liver triglycerides level; Elevated p-AMPKα and PPARα proteins expression in liver | Increased Muribaculaceae_unclassified, Bifidobacterium, Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Alistipes, and Bacteroides, and decreased Lactobacillus, Dubosiella Bilophila, and Streptococcus; Increased fecal SCFAs level | [173] |
Bletilla striata polysaccharides | Composed by mannose and glucose in a molar ratio of 2.946:1; Mw: 373 kDa | 300 mg/kg/d | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Reduced the abnormal weight gain; Altered amino acid, purine, pyrimidine, ascorbate, and aldarate metabolisms in feces, urine, and liver | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Turicibacter, Romboutsia, and Anaerostipes, and decreased Bacillus, Helicobacter, and Colidextribacter | [219] |
Aspergillus cristatus polysaccharide | Composed of ribose, glucose, galactose, and mannose in a molar ratio of 1:1.7:4.4:5.2; Mw: 21.16 kDa | 400 mg/kg/d | High-fat diet-induced obese rats model | Decreased body weight gain, adipose tissue weight, and the liver/body weight ratio; Improved IR | Increased Akkermansia, Akkermansia muciniphila, Bacteroides, Romboutsia, Blautia, and Desulfovibrio; Increased fecal SCFAs level; Elevated the content of unconjugated and conjugated BAs in the serum and liver | [220] |
Raspberry polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, rhamnose, glucose, galactose, arabinose, and fucose in a molar ratio of 0.06:0.33:1.00:0.08:0.31:0.15; Mw: 18 kDa | 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Decreased body weight gain, hyperlipidemia, inflammation, and fat accumulation; Enhanced intestinal barrier integrity | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Ruminococcaceae_UCG − 014, Lactobacillus taiwanensis, Bifidobacterium pseudolongum, and Turicibacter; Increased fecal SCFAs level and decreased LPS level | [221] |
Raspberry polysaccharides | Composed of arabinose (39.76 %) and galactose (39.43 %); Mw: 74.86 kDa | 100 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obese mice model | Decreased body weight gain, hyperglycemia, hyperlipemia, endotoxemia, hepatic inflammation, and oxidant stress; Enhanced intestinal barrier integrity | Increased Dubosiella, Blautia, and Acetatifactor; Increased fecal butyrate production | [222] |
5.4.2. Anti-T2DM
Bioactive Polysaccharides | Monosaccharide Composition and Molecular Weight (Mw) | Dosage | Study Approaches | Major Findings | Mode of Action–Gut Microbiota | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acidic tea polysaccharides | Mw: 3.9285 × 104 Da | 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced rat models | Improved plasma and liver lipid metabolism | Increased Bifidobacterium, Blautia, Dorea, and Oscillospira, and reduction in Desulfovibrio and Lactobacillus; Improved secondary BA biosynthesis and primary BA biosynthesis | [230] |
White hyacinth bean polysaccharides | Composed of glucose, rhamnose, galactonic acid, galactose, xylose, and arabinose in the molar ratio of 23.23:6.2:5.09:2.76:2.4:0.48; Mw: 2.3 × 105 Da | 100 mg/kg | High fat and high sugar induced T2DM rat model | Reduction of blood glucose levels and improvement of intestinal impairment | Increased gut microbiota diversity and F/B ratio; Enriched Allobaculum, Eubacterium, Anarrobiospirillum, and Holdemania; Increased cecal SCFA level | [164] |
Fu brick tea polysaccharides | Composed of arabinose (57.4%), rhamnose (25.2%), galactose (5.1%), mannose (3.3%), galacturonic acid (3.9%) and glucuronic acid (3.1%); Mw: >8000 Da | 200 and 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced rat models | Relieved dyslipidemia (i.e., TC, TG, LDL-C, and HDL-C), IR, and pancreas oxidative stress | Increased Ruminococcus and Lactobacillus; Reduced Prevotella and Faecalibaculum; Elevated colonic SCFA levels | [176] |
Fructus mori polysaccharides | Mw: 102.22 kDa, 8.71 kDa, and 5.62 kDa | 600 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Suppressed intestinal inflammation and oxidative stress; Enhanced the intestinal barrier function | Inhibiting endotoxin-producing Shigella and promoting Allobaculum and Bifidobacterium | [177] |
Dendrobium officinale polysaccharides | β-glucan; Mw: 8000~12,000 Da | 400 mg/kg/d | High-fat diet-induced T2DM mice model | Ameliorating IR; Fortifies intestinal barrier function | Favorable growth-promoting effects on Parabacteroides distasonis; Increased nicotinic acid level | [227] |
Auricularia auricula polysaccharides | Composed of fucose, galactose, glucose, mannose, and glucuronic acid | 200 mg/kg/d | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Reduced fasting blood glucose level; Stabilized the weight | Decreased the abundance of Enterorhabdus, Desulfovibrio, and Helicobacter, and increased the abundance of beneficial genera such as Alloprevotella, Faecalibaculum, Dubosiella | [224] |
Sargassum fusiforme fucoidan | High sulfate (14.55%) and rich in fucose (55.67%) and galactose (20.83%); Mw: 205.8 kDa | 40 mg/kg/d | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Decreased fasting blood glucose, improved glucose tolerance, decreased oxidative stress | Enriched Bacteroides, Faecalibacterium, and Blautia; Increased levels of (R)-carnitine and choline in the colon | [165] |
Auricularia auricula-judae polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (62%), glucose (12.6%), galactose (4%), rhamnose (13.1%), xylose (4%) and fucose (3.8%) | 50 and 100 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Decreased inflammation, liver injury, and IR; Improved glycolipid metabolism disorders by regulating the AKT and AMPK pathways | Elevated gut microbiota diversity; Increased Lactobacillus and Bacteroides; Decreased Clostridium and Allobaculum; Affected the amino acid metabolism and glycolipid metabolism pathways | [225] |
Auricularia auricula-judae polysaccharides | Composed of arabinose, mannose, galactose, and xylose with a molar ratio of 15.59:1.52:4.76:1.0 | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia rat model | Reduced the levels of total cholesterol and LDL-C | Enriched several lower-abundance SCFA-producing bacteria such as Flavonifractor and Clostridium cluster IV | [231] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | Composed of arabinose (5.32%), galactose (5.47%), glucose (57.63%), xylose (0.84%), mannose (25.41%), ribose (1.95%) and rhamnose (3.38%) | 500 and 1000 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Repaired islet cells and increased insulin secretion, promoted the liver synthesis and storage of glycogen; Improved antioxidant enzymes and IR | Decreased the F/B ratio; Enriched Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, and Ruminococcaceae; Decreased the release of endotoxins | [228] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, glucose, galactose, rhamnose, and arabinose in the molar ratio of 3.16:16.17:3.74:1.65:1; Mw: 13.7 kDa | 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM rat model | Decreased in the levels of fasting blood glucose and insulin | Reduced Aerococcus, Ruminococcus, Corynebacterium, and Proteus, and increased Blautia, Dehalobacterium, Parabacteroides, and Bacteroides; Restored the disturbed amino acids metabolism, carbohydrates metabolism | [229] |
Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | Composed of carbohydrates (62.27%), uronic acid (25.03%), and protein (2.92%); Mw: 3.5 kDa | 50, 100, or 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM rat model | Alleviated the symptoms of hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and IR; boosted the activities of CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px and reduced inflammation | Increasing Bacteroides, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-014, Intestinimonas, Mucispirillum, Ruminococcaceae_UCG-009 and decreasing Allobaculum, Dubosiella, Romboutsia; Increased SCFA production and decreased LPS | [232] |
Lycium barbarum L. polysaccharides | Composed of rhamnose (8.37%), glucuronic acid (2.21%), glucose (7.95%), galactose (26.38%), xylose (7.91%) and arabinose (47.18%); Mw: 38.54 kDa | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced diabetes mice model | Improved fasting blood glucose and glycated hemoglobin level and beta-cell function; guarded the intestinal barrier function | Induced Allobaculum | [233] |
Dendrobium officinale leaf polysaccharides | Composed of glucose, mannose, glucuronic acid, and galactose at a molar ratio of 3.2:2.6:1.0:0.7; Mw: 9.91 kDa | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Ameliorated hyperglycemia, inhibited IR, reduced lipid concentration | Decreased the F/B ratio; Increased Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, and Akkermansia; Increased colonic SCFA levels | [234] |
Morchella esculenta polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (5.77%), glucose (81.35%), galactose (3.543%) and arabinose (8.99%) | 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Regulated hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia and improved insulin sensitivity; Improved intestinal permeability | Increased Lactobacillus, decreased Corynebacterium, and Facklamia; Increased indole biosynthesis and secondary BA biosynthesis gene expression | [235] |
Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides | Mw: >3000 Da | 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Improved glycolipid metabolism disorders, inflammation and oxidative stress levels, and organ injury; Improved intestinal barrier | Inhibited Shigella and promoted Allobaculum and Lactobacillus | [236] |
Dendrobium officinale polysaccharides | Composed of mannose and glucose at a molar ratio of 3.45:1 | 200 mg/kg | High fat and high sugar and streptozotocin-induced prediabetic mice model | Improved glucose, IR, and lipid metabolism | Decreased F/B ratio; Increased Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus and decreased Colidextribacter, Helicobacter, and Mucispirillum; Increased intestinal SCFAs level and decreased LPS level | [237] |
Huanglian polysaccharides | Composed of glucuronic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose, with a molar ratio of 1.0:4.4:2.4:0.6; Mw: 12.1 kDa | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Improved hyperglycemia, IR, blood lipid levels, and β-cell function | Increased Akkermansia, and decreased Aerococcus, Providencia, Pseudochrobactrum; Increased fecal butyrate level | [238] |
Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | Composed of fucose, galactose, glucose, and mannuronic acid, with a molar ratio of 0.848:0.097:0.039:0.016; Mw: 7.32 kDa | 100 or 200 mg/kg | High fat and high sugar and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice model | Reduced fasting blood glucose levels, insulin levels, and inflammatory factors | Increased Candidatus_Saccharimonas, Shinella, Akkermansia, and Ochrobactrum; Increased cecal SCFA level | [239] |
Black quinoa polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (0.560%), ribose (0.418%), rhamnose (0.467%), glucuronide (1.889%), galacturonic acid (0.388%), glucose (91.169%), galactose (2.512%), xylose (0.305%), arabinose (2.031%), and fucose (0.262%); Mw: 8.087 kDa | 400 or 800 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Ameliorated blood glucose and lipid levels and improved oxidative stress levels and liver injury levels | Decreased F/B ratio; Increased Dubosiella, Akkermansia, Faecalibaculum, and Allobaculum; Increased cecal SCFA level | [240] |
Phellinus linteus polysaccharides | - | 300 mg/kg | High fat and high sugar and streptozotocin-induced T2DM rat model | Promoted the secretion of GLP-1, stimulated insulin secretion, and reduced blood glucose | Increased Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, and Alistioes; Increased intestinal SCFAs production and promoted conjugated BAs decomposition and the transformation of primary BAs to secondary BAs | [241] |
Tegillarca granosa polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, glucosamine, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galactosamine, glucose, galactose, xylose, and fucose, with a molar ratio of 1:1.38:0.87:0.53:0.52:5.37:1.38:1.05:2.40; Mw: 5.1 kDa | 200 or 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Improved dyslipidemia and disorders in glucolipid metabolism, enhanced insulin sensitivity by activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway | Increased Allobaculum, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Akkermansia, and Bifidobacterium; Increased fecal butyrate level | [242] |
Glycyrrhiza uralensis polysaccharides | Composed of galactose, xylose, mannose, and glucose, with a molar ratio of 1:0.22:1.2:0.22 | 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced T2DM mice model | Ameliorated hyperglycemia, IR, oxidative stress, enhanced gut barrier function, and reduced liver lipid levels | Increased Akkermansia, Lactobacillus, Romboutsia, and Faecalibaculum, decreased Bacteroides, Escherichia-Shigella, and Clostridium sensu stricto 1 | [243] |
5.4.3. Anti-NAFLD
Bioactive Polysaccharides | Monosaccharide Composition and Molecular Weight (Mw) | Dosage | Study Approaches | Major Findings | Mode of Action–Gut Microbiota | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Auricularia auricula polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, glucose, and xylose at a molar ratio of 4.9:2.7:1.1; Mw: 1670 kDa | 200 mg/kg | High-fat and high-cholesterol diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Improved liver injury and abnormal lipid metabolism | Reduced Allobaculum, Olsenella, Ruminococcus, and Clostridium_XVIII and enriched Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Dorea, and Odoribacter; Increased deoxycholic acid (DCA) | [247] |
Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides | Composed of rhamnose (1.6%), arabinose (23.39%), xylose (0.84%), glucose (70.55%), and galactose (3.61%) | 4% in HFD | High-fat diet-induced mice model | Suppressed hepatic fatty acid synthase (FASN) and CD36 protein expression | Enriched Desulfovibrio genus that produced acetic acid | [244] |
Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides | Composed of glucose (84.86%), arabinose (4.49%), galactose (3.92%) and ribose (3.26%) | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD rat model | Decreased body weight; Prevented Liver injury; Improved IR Attenuated hepatic lipid accumulation | Decreased the F/B ratio; Increased Proteobacteria and Epsilonbacteria; little effect on the profile of fecal SCFAs, decreased GPR 41 and 43 gene expression | [245] |
Auricularia cornea var. Li. Polysaccharides | Mw: >7 kD | 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD rat model | Lowered HOMA-IR, body fat rate, liver index, and body weight gain; decrease in hepatic levels of TC and TG; alleviated hepatic oxidative stress | Decreased the F/B ratio; Increased Bifidobacterium, Bacteroides, Odoribacter, Alloprevotella, Rikenellaceae RC9 gut group and Blautia; Decreased Parabacteroides and Lachnoclostridium | [178] |
Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, rhamnose, glucose, galactose, and arabinose with a mole ratio of 1.00:0.93:12.55:0.31:0.53 | 50 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD rat model | Restored the intestinal tight junctions; inhibited hepatic inflammatory factors | Decreased the F/B ratio; Increased gut microbial diversity; Decreased intestinal LPS level | [248] |
Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | Composed of fucose (40.6%), rhamnose (1.4%), arabinose (2.0%), galactose (27.3%), and mannose (26.7%); Mw: 200 kDa | 5% in diet | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Attenuated obesity-related features; attenuated liver steatosis and hepatocellular ballooning | Reduced F/B ratio; Elevated propionate-producing bacteria Bacteroides and Akkermansia; Increased fecal propionate level | [249] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | Mw: >5 kDa | 38 mg/kg | High-fat and high-fructose diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Inhibited the excessive exaltation of body weight, glucose tolerance, fasting blood glucose and lipid levels, hepatic TC, TG levels | Increased Aerococcus, Weissella, Corynebacterium_1, decreased Romboutsia, [Ruminococcus]_torques_group; Enriched microbial nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism and peptidoglycan biosynthesis | [250] |
Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides | Composed of 12-hydroxyganoderic acid, ganoderic acid, ganoderic acid, poricoic acid, and ganoderic acid | 150 mg/kg | High-fat and high-fructose diet-induced NAFLD rat model | Alleviated dyslipidemia through decreasing the levels of serum TG, TC, and LDL-C and inhibiting hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis | Reduced F/B ratio; Promoted Alloprevotella, Prevotella, Alistipes; Decreased Anaerotruncus, Dorea, Barnesiella, Methanosphaera; Increased fecal BAs and SCFAs levels | [195] |
Lentinan | β-glucan | 500 mg/kg in the diet | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Improved gut microbiota dysbiosis; improved intestinal barrier integrity | Increased gut microbial diversity; Reduced F/B ratio; Enhanced Bifidobacterium Streptococcus and Enterococcus; Reduced serum LPS level | [251] |
Aureobasidium pullulans strain AFO-202 β-glucan | β-glucan | 1 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced NASH mice model | Decreased inflammation associated hepatic cell ballooning and steatosis | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Lactobacillus, Turicibacter, and Bilophila; Increased fecal succinic acid level | [252] |
Ophiopogon japonicus polysaccharides | Composed of Fruf (2→1) and a side chain of Fruf (2→6) Fruf (2→) per average 2.8 of main chain residues; Mw: 3400 Da | 0.5% in diet | High-fat diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Ameliorated lipid accumulation, liver steatosis, and chronic inflammation | Increased Akkermansia muciniphila | [253] |
Lonicerae flos polysaccharides | - | 100 and 200 mg/kg | High-fat and high-fructose diet-induced NAFLD mice model | Regulated glucose metabolism dysregulation, IR, lipid accumulation, inflammation, fibrosis, and autophagy by activating the AMPK signaling pathway | Increased Muribaculum and Desulfovibrio | [254] |
Salviae miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma polysaccharides | Composed of galacturonic acid, arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, and glucose, with molar ratios of 17.9:1.3:1.7:1.2:1; Mw: 32.6 kDa | 10 and 20 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NAFLD mice model | Attenuated hepatocellular steatosis, hepatic fibrosis, and inflammation; Improved gut barrier function | Increased Bifidobacterium pseudolongum, Ruminococcus gnavus, Clostridium celatum, Clostridium cocleatum | [255] |
Ostrea rivularis polysaccharides | Composed of galactose and glucose in a molar percent of 23.7% and 76.3%, respectively; Mw: 118 kDa | 100 and 400 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NAFLD ApoE−/− mice model | Reduced TC, TG, and LDL-C levels and increased HDL level in serum; Enhanced intestinal barrier function | Reduced F/B ratio; Reduced Firmicutes and Proteobacteria | [256] |
Smilax china L. polysaccharides | Composed of arabinose, galactose, glucose, xylose, galacturonic acid, with molar ratios of 2.47:7.17:34.62:10.82:1.38; Mw: 134 kDa | 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NAFLD mice model | Improved dyslipidemia, decreased depositions of liver lipids and adipose tissues, regulated hepatic fat metabolism | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Muribaculaceae, and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, and decreased Coriobacteriaceae_UCG-002, Faecalibaculum, and Allobaculum | [257] |
Tegillarca granosa polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, glucosamine, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galactosamine, glucose, galactose, xylose, fucose, with molar ratios of 1:1.38:0.87:0.53:0.52:5.37:1.38:1.05:2.40; Mw: 5.1 kDa | 200 and 400 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NAFLD mice model | Reduced excessive hepatic lipid accumulation, dyslipidemia, abnormal liver function, and steatosis | Increased fecal SCFAs-producing bacteria (Lactobacillus, Dubosiella, and Akkermansia); Increased cecal SCFAs level | [258] |
Panacis japonici rhizome polysaccharides | Composed of glucose (74.995%), galactose (17.054%), and arabinose (7.949%); Mw: 167.178 kDa | 25 and 100 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NAFLD mice model | Reduced liver fat accumulation, blood lipids, and ALT | Reduced F/B ratio; Decreased Turicibacter, Dubosiella, and Staphylococcus, and increased Bacteroides, Blautia, and Lactobacillus; Decreased fecal acetate and propionate level | [259] |
Fufang Zhenzhu Tiaozhi polysaccharides | Composed of fucose (0.77%), arabinose (30.38%), galactose (24.43%), glucose (26.74%), xylose (3.23%), mannose (4.55%), galacturonic acid (9.37%), and glucuronic acid (0.52%) | 100 and 300 mg/kg | High-fat-induced NASH mice model | Improved liver lipid metabolism, reduced inflammation, and fibrosis, improved intestinal barrier function | Decreased Gammaproteobacteria, Clostridium, and Coprococcus, and increased Dehalobacteraceae and Dehalobacterium | [260] |
5.4.4. Anti-CVD
Bioactive Polysaccharides | Monosaccharide Composition and Molecular Weight (Mw) | Dosage | Study Approaches | Major Findings | Mode of Action–Gut Microbiota | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | - | 100 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced myocardial injury mice model | Improved left ventricular function and serum trimethylamine N-oxide; Reduced intestinal permeability and inflammation and alleviated myocardial injury | Increased Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and Romboutsia; decreased the Gordonibacter, Parabacteroides, and Anaerostipes; Increased tryptophan metabolites | [263] |
Cipangopaludina chinensis polysaccharides | Composed of glucose (95.2%), rhamnose (4.2%) and fucose (0.6%) | 100 and 400 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced atherosclerosis ApoE−/− mice model | Regulated plasma lipids balance, decreased atherosclerotic index, and reduced atherosclerotic plaque area | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Lactobacillus, Pediococcus, Ruminiclostridium, Alloprevotella and Flavobacterium | [264] |
Chenopodium quinoa Willd. polysaccharides | Composed of glucose and arabinose, with a mole ratio of 1.17:1; Mw: 82.7 kDa | 300 and 600 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia rat model | Decreased serum TG, LDL-C, MDA, ALT, and AST levels and reduced hepatic lipid accumulation | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Ruminiclostridium and decreased Desulfovibrio and Allobaculum | [265] |
Ginger polysaccharides | - | 50, 100 and 200 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia rat model | Decreased blood lipid, serum inflammatory markers, and enhanced antioxidant capacity | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased the growth of Akkermansia muciniphila | [266] |
Auricularia auricula polysaccharides (AAP) and Tremella polysaccharides (TP) | AAP composed of glucose (59.19%), galactose (22.63%) mannose (7.76%), fucose (6.46%), xylose (3.97%) and glucuronic acid (3.46%); TP was mainly composed of glucose (19.62%), mannose (36.18%), fucose (22.25%), xylose (18.62%) and glucuronic acid (3.33%); Mw: >8 kDa | 100 mg/kg AAP + 100 mg/kg TP | High-fat diet-induced hyperlipidemia rat model | Inhibited the development of hyperlipidemia and reduced lipid levels and fat accumulation; improved intestinal barrier function | Reduced F/B ratio; Increased Lactobacillus, Rumincococcacea, and Muribaculaceae; Decreased Allobaculum, Corynebacterium, Blautia, and Turicibucter | [261] |
Grifola frondose polysaccharides | Composed of mannose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, and fucose with molar ratio of 25.49:5.18:9.49:7.30:27.59:15.02:9.92; Mw: 15,850 kDa, 280.7 kDa and 18.18 kDa | 200 and 900 mg/kg | High-fat diet-streptozotocin-induced diabetes mice model | Reduced serum levels of TC, TG, and LDL-C; enhanced hepatic BAs synthesis and excretion | Elevated Alistipes and reduced Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Staphylococcus and Aerococcus | [267] |
Walnut green husk polysaccharides | Composed of glucuronic acid, arabinose, and galactose; Mw: 4813 Da | 200, 400 and 800 mg/kg | High-fat diet-induced obesity mice model | Improved hepatic steatosis and vascular endothelial dysfunction | Increased Akkermansia, Lachnoclostridium and norank_f__Muribaculaceae and decreased Prevotellaceae_UCG-001, Helicobacter, Alloprevotella and Allobaculum | [268] |
Ganoderma lucidum spore polysaccharides | Composed of mannose (1.00%), glucose (42.17%), galactose (4.78%), and fucose (1.75%); Mw: >10 kDa (72.93%) and >20 kDa (52.74%) | 50 mg/kg | TMAO-induced cardiac dysfunction rat model | Reduced serum TMAO, TC, TG, and LDL-C levels; increased heart function | Increased Firmicutes and Proteobacteria and reduced Actinobacteria and Tenericutes | [262] |
6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Pi, Y.; Fang, M.; Li, Y.; Cai, L.; Han, R.; Sun, W.; Jiang, X.; Chen, L.; Du, J.; Zhu, Z.; et al. Interactions between Gut Microbiota and Natural Bioactive Polysaccharides in Metabolic Diseases: Review. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2838. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172838
Pi Y, Fang M, Li Y, Cai L, Han R, Sun W, Jiang X, Chen L, Du J, Zhu Z, et al. Interactions between Gut Microbiota and Natural Bioactive Polysaccharides in Metabolic Diseases: Review. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):2838. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172838
Chicago/Turabian StylePi, Yu, Miaoyu Fang, Yanpin Li, Long Cai, Ruyi Han, Wenjuan Sun, Xianren Jiang, Liang Chen, Jun Du, Zhigang Zhu, and et al. 2024. "Interactions between Gut Microbiota and Natural Bioactive Polysaccharides in Metabolic Diseases: Review" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 2838. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172838