The Association between Fluoride and Bone Mineral Density in US Children and Adolescents: A Pilot Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participant
2.2. Measurement of Fluoride
2.3. Examination of BMD
2.4. Covariates
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Baseline Characteristics
3.2. Associations between Fluoride Exposure and TBLH BMD among US Children and Adolescents
3.3. Correlation between Concentrations of Different Fluoride Exposure
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Characteristic | Overall | Male | Female | p Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Number of participants, n (weighted %) | 1413 (100.0) | 728 (51.5) | 685 (48.5) | |
Age group, n (weighted %) | 0.6 | |||
Adolescents | 862 (68.5) | 450 (69.2) | 412 (67.7) | |
Children | 551 (31.5) | 278 (30.8) | 273 (32.3) | |
Race, n (weighted %) | 0.8 | |||
Hispanic | 501 (23.7) | 240 (23.3) | 261 (24.0) | |
Non–Hispanic White and Other | 481 (59.4) | 256 (60.1) | 225 (58.7) | |
Non–Hispanic Black | 299 (12.4) | 160 (12.2) | 139 (12.5) | |
Non–Hispanic Asian | 132 (4.6) | 72 (4.4) | 60 (4.8) | |
Physical activity, n (weighted %) | 0.8 | |||
<2 days/week | 479 (39.7) | 257 (40.8) | 222 (38.5) | |
2–4 days/week | 519 (35.8) | 258 (35.2) | 261 (36.5) | |
>4 days/week | 415 (24.5) | 213 (24.0) | 202 (25.0) | |
Milk product consumption, n (weighted %) | 0.001 | |||
<1. times/week | 198 (14.6) | 74 (10.2) | 124 (19.5) | |
1–6 times/week | 367 (26.8) | 184 (25.6) | 183 (28.1) | |
>6 times/week | 848 (58.6) | 470 (64.3) | 378 (52.4) | |
Body Mass Index (kg/m2) | 22.64 (5.89) | 22.26 (5.91) | 23.05 (5.85) | 0.045 |
Poverty income ratio (means ± SD) | 2.49 (1.56) | 2.58 (1.56) | 2.39 (1.56) | 0.13 |
Bone mineral density (g/cm2, means ± SD) | 0.84 (0.15) | 0.85 (0.17) | 0.83 (0.14) | 0.058 |
Water fluoride (mg/L, means ± SD) | 0.44 (0.35) | 0.44 (0.36) | 0.43 (0.34) | >0.9 |
Plasma fluoride (μmol/L, means ± SD) | 0.34 (0.21) | 0.36 (0.20) | 0.32 (0.21) | <0.001 |
Urine fluoride (mg/L, means ± SD) | 0.619 (0.510) | 0.677 (0.498) | 0.555 (0.517) | <0.001 |
Crude β (95%CIs) | Model 1 β (95%CIs) | Model 2 β (95%CIs) | |
---|---|---|---|
Water fluoride (mg/L) | |||
Q1 (≤0.16) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
Q2 (0.17–0.42) | −0.03 (−0.05, −0.02) ** | −0.01 (−0.03, 0.00) | −0.02 (−0.04, 0.00) |
Q3 (0.43–0.68) | −0.06 (−0.11, −0.02) ** | −0.04 (−0.09, 0.00) | −0.04 (−0.10, 0.02) |
Q4 (>0.68) | −0.08 (−0.13, −0.03) ** | −0.06 (−0.10, −0.01) * | −0.06 (−0.12, 0.00) |
p for trend | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Plasma fluoride (μmmol/L) | |||
Q1 (≤0.18) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
Q2 (0.18–0.29) | −0.02 (−0.05, 0.01) | −0.01 (−0.03, 0.01) | −0.01 (−0.03, 0.01) |
Q3 (0.30–0.40) | −0.04 (−0.06, −0.02) ** | −0.03 (−0.05, −0.01) * | −0.03 (−0.06, 0.00) * |
Q4 (>0.40) | −0.04 (−0.08, 0.00) | −0.03 (−0.06, 0.00) * | −0.03 (−0.07, 0.00) |
p for trend | <0.001 | 0.009 | 0.004 |
Urine fluoride (mg/L) | |||
Q1 (≤0.299) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) | 0 (Ref.) |
Q2 (0.300–0.496) | 0.00 (−0.02, 0.02) | 0.00 (−0.02, 0.02) | 0.00 (−0.03, 0.02) |
Q3 (0.497–0.804) | −0.01 (−0.04, 0.03) | 0.00 (−0.02, 0.03) | −0.01 (−0.04, 0.03) |
Q4 (>0.804) | −0.02 (−0.05, 0.02) | −0.01 (−0.03, 0.01) | −0.01 (−0.04, 0.01) |
p for trend | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.4 |
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Kong, H.; He, Z.; Li, H.; Xing, D.; Lin, J. The Association between Fluoride and Bone Mineral Density in US Children and Adolescents: A Pilot Study. Nutrients 2024, 16, 2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172948
Kong H, He Z, Li H, Xing D, Lin J. The Association between Fluoride and Bone Mineral Density in US Children and Adolescents: A Pilot Study. Nutrients. 2024; 16(17):2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172948
Chicago/Turabian StyleKong, Haichen, Zihao He, Hui Li, Dan Xing, and Jianhao Lin. 2024. "The Association between Fluoride and Bone Mineral Density in US Children and Adolescents: A Pilot Study" Nutrients 16, no. 17: 2948. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16172948