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Article

Electro-Chemical Degradation of Norfloxacin Using a PbO2-NF Anode Prepared by the Electrodeposition of PbO2 onto the Substrate of Nickel Foam

by
Jianshe Tang
1,2,*,
Zhubin Cheng
1,
Hao Li
1 and
Li Xiang
1
1
Department of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Anhui Jianzhu University, Ziyun Road 292, Hefei 230031, China
2
Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Hefei 230601, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Catalysts 2022, 12(11), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111297
Submission received: 10 September 2022 / Revised: 14 October 2022 / Accepted: 20 October 2022 / Published: 23 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Approaches to Catalysis: Elimination of Environmental Pollutants)
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Abstract

:
A novel three-dimensional network nickel foam/PbO2 combination electrode (PbO2-NF) with high electrochemical degradation efficiency to norfloxacin was successfully fabricated through the electrodeposition of PbO2 on the substrate of nickel foam. The characterization of an PbO2-NF electrode, including surface morphology, elemental components, electrochemical performance, and stability was performed. In electrochemical oxidation tests, the removal efficiency of norfloxacin (initial concentration for 50 mg/L) on PbO2-NF reached 88.64% within 60 min of electrolysis, whereas that of pure nickel foam was only 30%. In the presence of PbO2-NF, the optimum current density, solution pH, electrode spacing for norfloxacin degradation were 30 mA/cm2, 11, and 3 cm, respectively. The electric energy consumption for 80% norfloxacin was approximately 5 Wh/L. Therefore, these results provide a new anode to improve the removal of norfloxacin in the wastewater with high efficiency and low energy consumption.

1. Introduction

Currently, serious water contamination caused by organic compounds, such as antibiotics, pesticides, petroleum hydrocarbons, and pharmaceutical and personal care products, is one of the main problems facing the world [1]. As an effective antibacterial substance against bacteria, antibiotics are commonly used in the treatment of infectious diseases to fight against bacterial infections [2]. Therefore, antibiotics are widely used in medical procedures, especially in surgery [3]. In addition, antibiotics are also used in the medical field, agriculture, and veterinary. However, due to the inadequate use, management, and disposal of antibiotics, the surrounding antibiotic pollution is considered a new pollutant affecting ecosystems and human health [4]. In the past decade, there has been growing concern about the possible adverse effects of antibiotic use and disposal on human and ecological health. In addition, the potential problem of antibiotic resistance has been clearly recognized [5]. The use of antibiotics has saved countless lives, but it has also led to some clinical adverse reactions, including anaphylactic shock, fixed drug eruption, urticaria, gastrointestinal reactions, and aplastic anemia. Norfloxacin is from a popular second generation of synthetic quinolones antibiotics, and is used to treat bacterial infection [6]. Norfloxacin has been frequently detected in aquatic environments, e.g., 31.26 ng/L norfloxacin in the Taihu Lake Basin in China has been detected [7]. Even the concentration of norfloxacin in poultry industrial wastewater reached 149 mg/L [8].
Organic compounds, especially antibiotics, are unlikely to be completely eliminated by the biochemical treatment process in conventional municipal treatment plants because of their low biodegradability [9]. In this context, as noted in the literature, powerful oxidative methods compatible with financial constraints and environmental regulations were implemented to remove antibiotics [10,11]. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) were developed for the treatment of toxic organic pollutants through strong redox processes with specific radicals generated in the process [12,13]. Several AOPs have been proposed to remove antibiotics. Ozonation, Fenton/photo, Fenton and photocatalysis are the most common oxidation technologies [14]. For Fenton-type AOPs, the continuous oxidation of Fe(II) leads to the excessive consumption of the Fe (II) dose, resulting in large amounts of sludge in the application system [15]. Therefore, Qi and Yang developed a microwave (MW)-activated peracetic acid (PAA) AOP system to degrade sulfamethoxazole under alkaline conditions. More importantly, this can avoid the shortcomings of the above degradation system [16]. Followed by these strategies, the innovation of AOP with the tetraoxidosulfate radical (SO4•−) has attracted the most attention due to the advantages of SO4•− at a high redox potential, long half-life, and wide operation pH [17]. Peroxymonosulfate can be catalyzed by various ways, including but not limited to transition metals, ultraviolet radiation, etc. More and more studies on the generation of SO4•− catalyzed by transition metals were carried out. A novel cobalt/carbon nanotubes catalyst was synthesized to promote the formation of SO4•− by PMS, and effectively remove methylparaben [18]. Recently, electrochemical processes, as a good pollutant treatment technology, have received constant attention due to their main attractive characteristics: versatility, efficiency, good cost-effective relationship, easy automatization, and environmental friendliness [19]. The electrochemical oxidation of pollutants can be performed directly or indirectly. The pollutant is adsorbed onto the anode and is oxidized by electron transfer to the anode in a direct oxidation process. Pollutants are degraded by redox mediators, which are generated by an electrochemical process in indirect oxidation [20].
Although the electrochemical degradation efficiency depends on the properties of the electrodes, electrolyte composition, and operating conditions, the type and modification of the electrode play a critical role in the impact of the electrochemical degradation on pollutants. There have been few reports on the degradation of norfloxacin with different types of electrodes, including carbon black-Ti/SnO2-Sb [21], boron-doped diamond [19,22], stainless steel sheet [23], Ti/SnO2-Sb doped with Ni or Mo [24], etc. Stable PbO2 anodes are mostly used as anode material due to their high electrocatalytic activity, dimensional stability, and long lifetime [25].
Therefore, the PTFE-doped b-PbO2 anode [26], Sb-doped SnO2 ceramic anodes [19] and In2O3-doped PbO2 anode [8] have been reported in the literature for the degradation of norfloxacin. Recently, a three-dimensional network PbO2 anode with the substrate of titanium mesh possessed more abundant active sites, and a smaller electron transfer resistance indicates a better electrocatalytic performance [27]. Therefore, three-dimensional PbO2 may be a good means of improving the electrochemical degradation performance of the electrode.
Herein, the nickel foam was used as an ideal substrate of the PbO2 anode due to its three-dimensional network spatial structure and good flexibility. Therefore, a three-dimensional networked PbO2 anode (PbO2-NF) with nickel foam was prepared as an electrode carrier through electrodeposition technology. The morphology, structure, composition, electro-chemical performance, and stability of PbO2-NF was investigated. In addition, the electrochemical oxidation of wastewater containing norfloxacin was further studied. It was investigated that the degradation efficiency was increased with PbO2-NF compared with the bare nickel foam. The synergetic effect of the electrochemical oxidation system under the optimal operating parameters was also investigated.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemicals

Norfloxacin (C16H18FN3O3, 98.0%) was selected as the model pollutant, and obtained from Shanghai TCI Chemical Reagent (China) Co., Ltd. Lead nitrate (Pb(NO3)2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium sulfate (Na2SO4), ethanol (C2H6O), and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were purchased from Aladdin Reagent (China) Co., Ltd (Shanghai, China). All reagents were of analytical reagent grade. All chemicals were used as received without further purification. The pH was adjusted using 0.1 mol/L NaOH or 0.1 mol/L H2SO4. The graphite felt and nickel foam materials were purchased from Taobao stores (https://item.taobao.com (accessed on 15 June 2022)). Ultrapure water with a conductivity of 18.2 MΩ was used to prepare the solution.

2.2. Fabrication and Characterization of PbO2-NF Electrode

The graphene film and nickel foam were cut into 3 cm × 1. 5 cm in size. The pieces of graphite felt and nickel foam sheet were degreased with ethanol for 40 min, and then rinsed with ultrapure water. A graphite sheet with a surface area of 4.5 cm2 was used as the counter electrode. The nickel foam was used as a substrate to prepare PbO2-NF. The electrodeposition of PbO2 onto the surface of the nickel foam was performed in the electrolyte containing 0.5 m Pb(NO3)2 and 0.1 M HNO3 at a constant current intensity of 30 mA/cm2 for 40 min.

2.3. Electrolysis

Electrolysis was performed using a galvanostat to study the electrochemical performance of PbO2-NF. In a self-made electrolytic cell, a PbO2-NF electrode was used as the anode accompanied with a graphene film sheet in the same size as the cathode at a spacing of 3 cm to run the electrochemical reactions. In all experiments, 100 mL norfloxacin solution with an initial concentration of 50.0 mg/L was degraded at ambient temperature in a medium containing 0.1 M Na2SO4 as a supporting electrolyte. In order to ensure accurate data acquisition, all experiments were conducted in triplicate.

2.4. Analytical Methods

The microstructure of the anode was investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM, S-3500N, Hitachi Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan). An electrochemical working station (CHI 660D, ChenHua Instruments Co. Ltd., Shanghai, China) was employed to test the anode electrochemical property. The degradation was followed by measuring the change in the absorbance at 275 nm using a UV-visible spectrophotometer (Evolution 220, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) [19].
The norfloxacin removal efficiency (R) was calculated by the following formula:
R ( % ) = ( 1 − C ( n o r f l o x a c i n , t ) C ( n o r f l o x a c i n , 0 ) ) × 100 %
where C(norfloxacin,0) and C(norfloxacin, t) corresponded to the value of norfloxacin before and after the treatment of electrochemical degradation. The overall rate equation for the electrochemical degradation of norfloxacin was expressed as an equation of dc/dt = kc, where k is the pseudo-first-order rate constant (min−1), C is the concentration of norfloxacin in the solution (mg/L), and t is the reaction time (min). The electrical energy per order (EE/O) in the experiments was calculated as follows:
E E / O = U × I × t V × log ( C ( n o r f l o x a c i n , t ) / C ( n o r f l o x a c i n , 0 )
where U is applied voltage (V), I is applied current (A), t is degradation time (h), V is electrolyte volume (m3) [28].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Properties of PbO2-FN Electrode

3.1.1. Comparison of Electrical Decomposition Performance

In order to verify the electrochemical catalytic performance of the prepared PbO2-FN electrode, t the norfloxacin degradation efficiency between PbO2-FN and bare nickel foam electrode was compared. From Figure 1, it can be seen that the degradation performance of norfloxacin can be effectively improved by the electrode after the process of PbO2 electrodeposition. The electrochemical degradation efficiency of norfloxacin in 60 min reaction time by the PbO2-FN electrode and bare nickel foam electrode were 65% and 29.5%, respectively. It is worth noting that, in contrast with other reported electrochemical degradation processes, norfloxacin was not abruptly degraded in the initial stage of electrochemical degradation process [29,30,31]. In this electrochemical degradation process, the slowly decreasing trend of the norfloxacin concentration unfolded over a reaction time of 60 min.

3.1.2. Physicochemical Properties

After confirming that the modified nickel foam electrode has the electrochemical efficiency of degrading antibiotics, the physicochemical properties of PbO2 modified nickel foam electrode are worthy of exploration. The surface morphology was a significant physicochemical property to electrodes. The microstructure and specific surface area of the electrodes essentially affect its electrochemical activity toward the degradation of pollutants. Herein, the morphology structures of PbO2-FN and the bare nickel foam electrode were characterized by SEM analysis. The cleaned nickel foam presented a typical gray sponge-shaped foam, while the surface of Pb deposited nickel foam showed a black block without the change in the spatial structure of sponge (Figure 2a,b). The electrode showed a very dark color within 10 min of PbO2 electrodeposition. There was no obvious difference in the color of the electrode after a 10 min electrodeposition process, indicating that the electrodeposition time of PbO2 on the electrode surface in 40 min was enough.
According to Figure 2c,d, the SEM diagram shows the three-dimensional spatial network structure of nickel foam [32]. Through SEM images in Figure 2c,d, it could be found that interlaced amorphous PbO2 grows on the substrate of the nickel foam substrate and the appearance is dense and uniform. Therefore, the PbO2 coated on the surface of nickel foam enhanced the thickness of the framework of nickel foam. The PbO2 on the surface of the nickel foam showed a hierarchical structure without the collapse and agglomeration phenomenon. The non-cracking structure could provide easy access to the PbO2 for electrolytes on the surface of nickel foam in the electrochemical reaction, becoming a main reason to improve the electrochemical degradation efficiency [33]. Moreover, the EDS map image (Figure 2e) indicates that the Ni, Pb, and O elements were distributed in the PbO2-FN. The Pb content of absolute abundance indicates the successful deposition of Pb on the surface of modified electrode [34].

3.1.3. Electrochemical Properties

The Nyquist plots of PbO2-FN and FN obtained from the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurement in the frequency range from 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz are displayed in Figure 3. The Nyquist plots were analyzed using the ZSimpWin-3.60 software based on the equivalent electrical circuit. The Nyquist plots were fitted based on Randles model, as shown in Figure 3 (inset). The plot lines present a semicircle. Rs represents the solution resistance. Rct represents the charge transfer resistance in the PbO2-NF film at the interface of the electrode and electrolyte solution.
The Cdl was used to replace the double layer capacitance. The fitted Rct value for the PbO2-NF electrode was 5.963 × 102 Ω, which was lower than the 1.620 × 103 of the FN electrode, indicating the significantly faster electron transfer rate on the PbO2-NF electrode. The values of Rs at the interface of the PbO2-NF electrode was 1.2 Ω, which was much lower than that of the pure nickel foam electrode (Rs, 2.93 Ω), indicating that there are the high conductivity and electron transfer rate between the PbO2-NF electrode and the electrolyte interface. An Rct value of ~1.620 × 103 Ω to the bare nickel foam electrode was reported by Yang [35]. The result was similar with the Rct determined in our experiments. Low Rct values (33.6 Ω, 1.84 Ω) for the pure PbO2 electrode were also reported in the literature, which prove that the PbO2 attached to the nickel foam electrode is scientific and can reasonably reduce impedance [36].
The electrochemical characters of the PbO2-NF electrode were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV). The CV curve was recorded from 0 to 2 V/SCE. The CV curves (Figure 4) were obtained in the reference solution with and without 50 mg/L norfloxacin in the electrolyte. No additional peak appeared when the norfloxacin was presented, indicating that the electrochemical oxidation of norfloxacin is mainly carried out by indirect oxidation mediated by some free radicals (e.g., HO) [37].

3.2. Electrochemical Oxidation

The aforementioned results from the comparison of the electrode degradation performance revealed that the prepared PbO2-NF electrode had good electrochemical oxidation ability for norfloxacin. In order to certify the high electrocatalytic activity of the PbO2-NF electrode, the effects of different operating parameters (including current density, pH value, and the distance between positive and negative electrodes) on the electrochemical oxidation efficiency were studied.

3.2.1. Effects of Applied Current Density

It is obvious that the current density is an important factor in the electrochemical oxidation process as it regulates the capability of hydridooxygen radical generation [31]. Figure 5a showed the norfloxacin removal rate under the conditions of different applied current densities. In the range of 10–40 mA/cm2, the degradation of norfloxacin was greatly promoted by increasing the current density. The norfloxacin removal efficiency increased from 22.02% to 88.64% when the applied current density was increased from 10 to 40 mA/cm2 at a pH of 11. However, the change in current density with the fastest rate increase in norfloxacin degradation ranged from 20 to 30 mA/cm2. A higher current density might enhance the reaction of the oxygen evolution on the anode surface, which competes with the oxidation of organic matter on the anode surface [38]. Therefore, in this study, norfloxacin degradation was favorable at an appropriate current density of 30 mA/cm2 by the anode of PbO2-NF.

3.2.2. Effect of pH

The pH of electrolyte is a crucial experimental parameter to electrochemical reaction. The oxidation and degradation efficiency of norfloxacin by the medium-pressure ultraviolet/peracetic acid process in the alkaline solution was significantly higher than that in the acidic and neutral medium due to the physical and chemical properties of norfloxacin itself [39]. Three different initial alkaline pH values (9, 11, 13) were tested in this study. The norfloxacin removal increased with the increase in the pH value of the solution. The norfloxacin removal reached 43% at a pH of 11 within 60 min, while the lower efficiency was observed at pH 9 (35.9%) and pH 13 (41.4%) (Figure 5b), which is probably due to the side-reaction of oxygen evolution in the alkaline medium, which causes the higher degradation efficiency of norfloxacin.

3.2.3. Effect of Inter-Electrode Distance

The effect of the distance between the positive and negative electrodes on the degradation of norfloxacin was investigated. When the inter-electrode distance was increased from 2 cm to 4 cm, the degradation efficiency of norfloxacin decreased, as shown in Figure 5c. The damage ability of the electrochemical degradation system to norfloxacin was almost consistent in the distance between the positive and negative electrodes of 2 cm and 3 cm. However, the degradation rate of norfloxacin significantly decreased at the 4 cm distance of the cathode and anode. Acid Orange II degradation using a quinone-modified platinum electrode was decreased with the increase in the inter-electrode distance from 10 mm to 50 mm [40]. This phenomenon could be explained by the side reactions that occurred at the short inter-electrode distance and the high voltage required to maintain the constant current [41]. However, the repeated increase in electrode spacing cannot continuously improve the electrochemical degradation effect because the long distance of the anode and cathode lead to difficulty in mass transformation.

3.3. Degradation Kinetics

Table 1 shows the pseudo-first-order kinetic simulation parameters of the norfloxacin electrochemical degradation with the PbO2-NF electrode under different operating conditions. From this analysis, a pseudo-first-order rate constant (k1) was 2.374 × 10−2 min−1 (R2 = 0.9961) under the operation condition of 40 mA/cm2 current density, pH = 11, and a 2 cm distance of cathode and anode, which was 4.52 times of that from the operation condition of 20 mA/cm2 current density, pH = 7, and 4 cm double electrode spacing. The correlation coefficients (R2) of the pseudo first-order kinetic simulation curve were higher than 0.9, indicating that the kinetic equation fitting this electrocatalytic degradation of norfloxacin was feasible. As shown in Table 1, the half-life times (t1/2) of norfloxacin were determined to be 30~60 min. Accordingly, Figure 6 shows that the results obtained from the first-order decay of norfloxacin in the form of ln (C0/Ct) vs. time present good linearity. From the slope of the simulated line, the higher the current density is, the faster the degradation rate of norfloxacin is. The longer electrode spacing was very unfavorable to the electrochemical decomposition ability.

3.4. Energy Consumption

During the whole process of electrolysis, the rough output voltages from the supply were 7.34, 9.022, 13.515, and 15.4 V when the currencies were fixed at 10, 20, 30, and 40 mA, respectively. This shows that the maximum output power of this electrolysis system by the power supply only needs 0.6 W. This power is one tenth of the reported electrochemical cell power (6 W) [42]. There is no doubt that, as the current increases, the output voltage will also increase (Table 1). The linear fitting relationship between the voltage and current was current (mA) = 3.4015 × voltage (V) − 13.972 (r2 = 0.9915). Interestingly, with the extension of the electrolysis time, the voltage output continues to increase in the constant current mode. In the case of constant current, the EE/O value was determined by the voltage and the degradation rate of norfloxacin within 1 h. However, EE/O could indirectly reflect the decomposition efficiency of norfloxacin due to the linear relationship between voltage and current. Table 1 shows the EE/O values of the electrochemical degradation process in 1 h under various treatment conditions. However, these experimental results cannot show the trend of energy consumption in electrochemical degradation.
It can be seen from Figure 7, with the continuous progress of electrolysis, the degradation energy consumption of norfloxacin continues to decline slowly, and this downward trend was more obvious under the condition of a low constant current. The EE/O values were approximately 5 Wh/L. Compared with the results of approximately 5 Wh/L EE/O reported by Wang et al., the higher EE/O may be caused by the large electrode spacing used in the experiments [43].

3.5. Reusability and Sustainability of PbO2-NF Electrode

In this work, the reusability and stability of the PbO2-NF electrode was inspected for norfloxacin degradation. As depicted in Figure 8, the PbO2-NF anode showed appreciable stability in several runs of norfloxacin degradation. The removal efficiency of norfloxacin can still reach 60% within 80 min even after five cycles. Thus, there was a negligible drop in the electrochemical activity of PbO2 doping the nickel foam electrode. The negligible drop in the electrochemical activity could be considered for the PbO2-NF anode because the removal efficiency of norfloxacin in fifth run (56.7%) was only 8% lower than that in the first performance. β-PbO2 crystals can present their original shape from the experiment results of the reuse cycles of a three-dimensional networked PbO2 electrode for the electrochemical oxidation of p-nitrophenol [27]. Thus, as an anode, the PbO2 electrode maintains its good sustainability and repeatability in the electrochemical catalysis process without obvious change.

4. Conclusions

This work developed an efficient and low-cost PbO2-NF electrode which was prepared by one-step PbO2 electrochemical deposition on the surface of nickel foam for norfloxacin degradation in water. The removal performance of the norfloxacin by PbO2-NF electrochemical systems was estimated. A rapid removal by both systems was achieved under high current densities and in an alkaline solution surrounding. The removal ratio increased with the higher current density and an appropriate inter-electrode distance (2–3 cm). Moreover, the electrochemical system used herein proved to be very competitive in terms of energy consumption because of the low value of electric energy consumption per order, ca. 5 Wh/L EE/O based on the PbO2-NF electrode. Finally, multiple cycles’ stability of the PbO2-NF electrode was tested. After five rounds of continuous operation, the activity of PbO2-NF for the degradation of norfloxacin remained almost unchanged. This work offers a promising application of PbO2-modified porous materials for organic waste water treatment.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.T.; methodology, J.T. and Z.C.; investigation, J.T.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.C. and H.L.; writing—review and editing, J.T.; supervision, J.T.; validation, J.T. and L.X.; project administration, J.T. and L.X.; funding acquisition, J.T. and L.X. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (Grant Number 2108085ME184), the Collaborative Innovation Project of the Anhui Provincial Department of Education (Grant Number GXXT-2021-057), and the Doctoral Scientific Research Startup Foundation of Anhui Jianzhu University (Grant Number 2020QDZ36).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Comparison of degradation efficiencies of norfloxacin at the electrodes of PbO2-FN and bare nickel foam.
Figure 1. Comparison of degradation efficiencies of norfloxacin at the electrodes of PbO2-FN and bare nickel foam.
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Catalysts 12 01297 g002 550
Figure 2. Physical drawing of the nickel foam (a) and PbO2-FN (b). SEM of nickel foam (c) and PbO2-FN (d). EDS spectrogram of PbO2-FN (e).
Figure 2. Physical drawing of the nickel foam (a) and PbO2-FN (b). SEM of nickel foam (c) and PbO2-FN (d). EDS spectrogram of PbO2-FN (e).
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Figure 3. Experimental and simulated Nyquist plots of nickel foam and PbO2-FN electrodes.
Figure 3. Experimental and simulated Nyquist plots of nickel foam and PbO2-FN electrodes.
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Figure 4. Cyclic voltammograms of PbO2-FN electrode in 0.1 mol/L Na2SO4 solution and 0.1 mol/L Na2SO4 + 25 mg/L norfloxacin solution.
Figure 4. Cyclic voltammograms of PbO2-FN electrode in 0.1 mol/L Na2SO4 solution and 0.1 mol/L Na2SO4 + 25 mg/L norfloxacin solution.
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Figure 5. Influence of the current density (a), pH (b), and the inter-electrode distance (c) on norfloxacin removal on the PbO2-FN electrode (the initial concentration of norfloxacin = 25 mg/L; T = 30 °C; the concentration of Na2SO4 = 0.05 mol/L).
Figure 5. Influence of the current density (a), pH (b), and the inter-electrode distance (c) on norfloxacin removal on the PbO2-FN electrode (the initial concentration of norfloxacin = 25 mg/L; T = 30 °C; the concentration of Na2SO4 = 0.05 mol/L).
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Figure 6. Electro-catalytic performance comparison of the various conditions by the PbO2-NF electrode in terms of kinetic analysis curves.
Figure 6. Electro-catalytic performance comparison of the various conditions by the PbO2-NF electrode in terms of kinetic analysis curves.
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Figure 7. Energy consumption per order for the electrochemical degradation of norfloxacin under the various conditions of the current density and the inter-electrode distance.
Figure 7. Energy consumption per order for the electrochemical degradation of norfloxacin under the various conditions of the current density and the inter-electrode distance.
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Figure 8. Reusability of PbO2-NF electrode.
Figure 8. Reusability of PbO2-NF electrode.
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Table
Table 1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic simulation parameters of norfloxacin electrochemical degradation with PbO2-NF electrode under different operating conditions.
Table 1. The pseudo-first-order kinetic simulation parameters of norfloxacin electrochemical degradation with PbO2-NF electrode under different operating conditions.
Treatment ConditionsElectrical ParametersFirst-Order Dynamic Model
Current Density (mA)pHDistance (cm)Average Voltage (V)EEO (Wh/L)Initial ConcentrationDegradation Rate Constant (k)Half Life
(t1/2)		Adj. R-Square
207413.5619.6349.2010.005251320.90804
307216.6135.58454.2760.0126154.9560.98811
4011216.2645.43155.2840.0237529.1790.99614
409213.06910.93752.1140.0092574.9190.94135
3011313.166.63754.3770.0169440.9090.92431
3013315.58210.16953.4750.0095972.2630.96139
407216.019.07851.8230.0137350.4730.95407
407312.7857.50151.7950.0128154.0980.95522
307413.5617.54951.0530.010267.9410.94067
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Tang, J.; Cheng, Z.; Li, H.; Xiang, L. Electro-Chemical Degradation of Norfloxacin Using a PbO2-NF Anode Prepared by the Electrodeposition of PbO2 onto the Substrate of Nickel Foam. Catalysts 2022, 12, 1297. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111297

AMA Style

Tang J, Cheng Z, Li H, Xiang L. Electro-Chemical Degradation of Norfloxacin Using a PbO2-NF Anode Prepared by the Electrodeposition of PbO2 onto the Substrate of Nickel Foam. Catalysts. 2022; 12(11):1297. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111297

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tang, Jianshe, Zhubin Cheng, Hao Li, and Li Xiang. 2022. "Electro-Chemical Degradation of Norfloxacin Using a PbO2-NF Anode Prepared by the Electrodeposition of PbO2 onto the Substrate of Nickel Foam" Catalysts 12, no. 11: 1297. https://doi.org/10.3390/catal12111297

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