Next Article in Journal
The Cellular Structure and Toughness of Hydrogenated Styrene-Butadiene Block Copolymer Reinforced Polypropylene Foams
Previous Article in Journal
Eco-Friendly Catalytic Synthesis of Top Value Chemicals from Valorization of Cellulose Waste
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Polymers
Volume 15
Issue 6
10.3390/polym15061502
polymers-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Copper Oxide–Titanium Oxide Based Nanocatalyst Beads for the Reduction of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants

by
Esraa M. Bakhsh
1,
Sher Bahadar Khan
1,*,
Nujud Maslamani
2,
Ekram Y. Danish
1,
Kalsoom Akhtar
1 and
Abdullah M. Asiri
1,3
1
Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
2
Chemistry Department, College of Science, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. Box 76971, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
3
Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80203, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Polymers 2023, 15(6), 1502; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061502
Submission received: 30 December 2022 / Revised: 3 March 2023 / Accepted: 8 March 2023 / Published: 17 March 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In this work, we have developed novel beads based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) encapsulated copper oxide-titanium oxide (CuO-TiO2) nanocomposite (CMC/CuO-TiO2) via Al+3 cross-linking agent. The developed CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were applied as a promising catalyst for the catalytic reduction of organic and inorganic contaminants; nitrophenols (NP), methyl orange (MO), eosin yellow (EY) and potassium hexacyanoferrate (K3[Fe(CN)6]) in the presence of reducing agent (NaBH4). CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads exhibited excellent catalytic activity in the reduction of all selected pollutants (4-NP, 2-NP, 2,6-DNP, MO, EY and K3[Fe(CN)6]). Further, the catalytic activity of beads was optimized toward 4-nitrophenol with varying its concentrations and testing different concentrations of NaBH4. Beads stability, reusability, and loss in catalytic activity were investigated using the recyclability method, in which the CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocomposite beads were tested several times for the reduction of 4-NP. As a result, the designed CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocomposite beads are strong, stable, and their catalytic activity has been proven.

1. Introduction

Large quantities of organic and inorganic contaminates released to the ecosystem through wastewater steam due to different human activities (e.g., industrial waste, textile, agrochemical and pharmaceutical). These organic and inorganic pollutants, such as dyes, nitrophenols, and potassium hexacyanoferrate are naturally unmanageable, highly toxic, hazardous in nature, carcinogenic, mutagenic, and limited biodegradable. They are also seen as being harmful and dangerous to living things [1,2,3,4,5].
As a result, the techniques for removing these types of pollutants have significant drawbacks, such as low elimination rates, high cost and complexity, and slow removal efficiency, which limit their uses. Many efforts have been devoted to remove toxic contaminants from water bodies, but some of the established methods are not useful enough to complete the removal of toxic pollutants, besides long time consumption and their high cost. The demand for pollution management around the world is to develop new cost-effective, environmentally friendly, simple, and new manageable processes to remove the toxic contaminants or convert into the toxins into useful compounds. The rising advancement of usage of green chemistry in pollution management is due to the fact that environmentally friendly processes have a long history of being both environmentally and economically beneficial [6,7,8]. Recently, huge efforts have been made to develop methods based on catalytic reduction/degradation/transformation of these toxic contaminates to less toxic form and useful compounds which is a good way to deal with wastewater contaminates. Catalytic reduction is one strategy that requires less time to remove the toxic pollutants, which is easy, fast and involves a very low quantity of solvent compared to other techniques. According to literature, various catalysts have been prepared from an efficient, stable, and selective material to be an efficient for the removal toxic organic and inorganic contaminates from wastewater.
Copper oxide nanocatalyst can achieve good selectivity without any extra additives for reducing nitrophenols and dyes. Due to its unique characteristics, such as a high surface-to-volume ratio and higher activity compared to those of the bulk materials [9,10,11]. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is also frequently used as a nanocatalyst or substrate for immobilizing metal nanomaterial because of its favorable qualities of non-toxicity, stability, and hydroxyl-rich surface [12]. In particular, copper oxide (p-type) and titanium oxide (n-type) are an important class of semiconductor for efficient dye degradation processes and the reduction of nitrophenols. Thus, a nanocatalyst based on the combination of TiO2 and CuO have been developed for the reduction of nitrophenol and dyes due to their great advantages of adjustable oxidation states, low cost, as well as thermal and chemical stability [13,14,15,16,17,18]. Unfortunately, the powder nanocatalyst of metal oxides encountered issues like aggregation, difficulties in separation and reuse of these materials [14,19,20,21,22,23].
Polymer-based metal oxide nanocomposite holds great promise as a viable approach to overcome the aforementioned challenges of metal oxide nanoparticles. According to recent studies, different polymer-based nanocomposites have been fabricated by various ways, either by coating or hosting the fine nanomaterial onto the polymer matrix of larger size. Polymeric host materials are an attractive route to control the pore space and surface of the nanomaterials as well as their excellent properties, which could improve the mechanical strength for long-term use. Several polymers, including cellulose or carboxymethyl cellulose [13,24,25,26,27,28], chitosan, agarose, clay, alginate and so on [21,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36], are used. Among them, CMC has been proven to be an appropriate polymer host for various metal oxide nanocomposites.
In the current study, an efficient nanocatalyst beads were developed based on incorporating the nanocomposite CuO-TiO2 onto the CMC as a host polymer by the help of cross-linking agent AlCl3. CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were characterized by SEM, XRD and EDS. The synthesized CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were evaluated as catalyst for the reduction of selected organic and inorganic pollutants.

2. Experimental

2.1. Chemicals and Reagents

Titanium (VI) oxide ((TiO2) of particle size < 100 nm and purity of >97% has been provided by Sigma Aldrich. Copper (II) nitrate (Cu(NO3)2), nitrophenols including 4-nitrophenol (4-NP), 2-nitrophenol (2-NP) and 2,6-dinitrophenol (2,6-DNP), organic dyes involving methyl orange (MO) and eosin yellow (EY), potassium hexacyanoferrate K3[Fe(CN)6], sodium borohydride (NaBH4), and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) were all purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Distilled water was used in all experiments.

2.2. Synthesis of CuO-TiO2 Nanoparticles

CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles were prepared by dissolving cupric nitrate in distilled water (1:1 weight) and stirring thoroughly to completely dissolve the cupric nitrate. Then, the TiO2 was added to cupric nitrate solution (1:1 weight). After that, NaOH was added to elevate the pH of the liquid to 10. The resulting mixture was agitated overnight at 60 °C, then rinsed and dried multiple times. The precipitate was then calcined for 5 h at 500 °C.

2.3. Preparation of CMC/CuO-TiO2 Nanocatalyst Beads

CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles were dispersed in CMC solution to make CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads. Firstly, 0.1 g of CMC powder was dissolved in 50 mL of deionized water at 50 °C with stirring for 4 h. After CMC completely dissolved, 150 mg of CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles was added to the CMC solution and continuous stirring overnight at RT (25  ±  1), which resulted in a viscous suspension. The mixture was filled in syringe and loaded by dropwise into 0.2 M AlCl3, which used as a cross linker agent to form beads of CMC/CuO-TiO2. The CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were kept in a crosslinking agent solution overnight for complete crosslinking. Afterward, the prepared beads were separated and washed several times with deionized water to eliminate the excess of unreacted Al+3 on the surface of the beads. Finally, the CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were dried at a temperature of 25 °C on the pinch top, as shown in Figure 1.

2.4. Characterization

To evaluate the phase structure of the produced catalysts, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to confirm the morphologies and structures of CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2. CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2 were also analyzed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) (JEOL, JSM-7600F, Akishima-shi, Japan) and were individually glued on the stub using carbon tape as a binder and then sputtered with platinum for 15 s. For elemental analysis, EDS was used, which is connected directly with the SEM. For UV–Vis spectra, a Thermo Scientific TM Evolution TM 350 UV–vis spectrophotometer was used to record the catalytic reduction studies.

2.5. Catalytic Reduction

The catalytic behavior of the developed nanocatalyst beads (CMC/CuO-TiO2) was tested with organic pollutants such as nitrophenol isomers [4-NP, 2-NP, and 2,6-DNP] and organic dyes (EY and MO) as well as inorganic compound K3[Fe(CN)6]. All these selected compounds were prepared in deionized water. In all catalytic reduction investigations, 2.5 mL of a pollutant solution was placed in the UV cuvette cell and passed across its UV-vis spectrum. After that, 0.5 mL of fresh reducing agent (0.1 M NaBH4) was added, followed by 5 mg of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads, and the UV-vis absorption spectrum was continually recorded every 1.0 min. The percent % reduction of all compounds was calculated by utilizing Equation (1):
% R e d u c t i o n = C 0 − C t C 0   ∗   100
where C0 and Ct are the initial and final concentrations of the studied compounds [6].

3. Result and Discussion

3.1. Characterization

3.1.1. Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

The surface morphology of the prepared materials CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2 was examined using SEM. Low-to-high-magnified SEM pictures for the prepared nanocomposites are represented on the left and right sides of Figure 2. Images of Figure 2a,a’ indicate the particles of CuO-TiO2 which look like aggregated nanosheets [37,38]. The pure beads of CMC show flat surfaces with less porousness, which was presented in our previous studies [14,31]. On the other hand, CMC/CuO-TiO2 was planted well on the CMC matrix, as observed in Figure 2b,b’. The surface of the CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads looks smooth due to the CMC while the aggregated particles appeared due to CuO-TiO2.

3.1.2. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)

The crystal structures and phase purities of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocomposite beads and CuO-TiO2 were tested by XRD analysis. The CuO-TiO2 nanocomposite pattern illustrated several diffraction peaks, which were indications for the CuO and TiO2 phases. As shown in Figure 3, the diffraction peaks at 2 θ  were equal to 27° and 55°, confirming the TiO2 in the rutile phase [39,40,41], whereas the diffraction bands at 2 θ  = 35.6°, 38.6°, and 48.8°, indicating the monoclinic structure of CuO [42]. As per our previous studies [1,38], the XRD pattern of CMC/CuO-TiO2 bead showed one additional small hump at 2 θ  = 23° which suggest the presence of amorphous phase of CMC present in the bead. The developed CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocomposite beads has the same diffraction peaks, which indicating that CuO-TiO2 was planned very well in the CMC matrix as clearly seen from Figure 3.

3.1.3. EDS Analysis

As shown in Figure 4a,a’, EDS was used to confirm the composition of CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalysts. Copper (Cu), titanium (Ti), and oxygen (O) peaks were visible in the EDS spectra of the CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles. Cu peaks were found at 0.9, 8.0, and 9.0 keV, whereas Ti peaks were found at 0.5, 4.5, and 5.0 keV, and O peaks were at 0.48 keV. Referring to Cu, Ti, and O, the data indicated the production of CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles. Thus, the CuO-TiO2 nanoparticles were made up of Cu, Ti, and O, according to EDS. The oxygen content was 27.32 wt% while Cu and Ti were 36.13 wt% and 33.71 wt%, according to EDS data. At the same time, the EDS analysis was also applied to CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads. Elements such as Cu, Ti, O, C, Cl, and Al were all detected in the CMC/CuO-TiO2 bead spectra (Figure 4b,b’), which indicated that the beads containe these elements. The production of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads was confirmed by these peaks. Cu, Ti, O, and C were due to CuO-TiO2 and CMC, whereas Al and Cl were existing due to the cross-linking agent (AlCl3). EDS proved that the developed CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were successfully prepared and contained Cu, Ti, O, C, Al, and Cl.

3.2. Catalytic Reduction

3.2.1. Reduction of Nitrophenol Isomers

The CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads were initially investigated for their ability to reduce 4-NP in the presence of NaBH4. As can be observed in Figure 5, the 4-NP has a pale yellow absorbance peak at 317 nm. The color changed to brilliant yellow after adding 0.5 mL of 0.1 M NaBH4, and the absorbance band was shifted to a longer wavelength of 400 nm at the same time. This is frequent in 4-NP reduction; a change in color and a shift in the absorbance band are indications of 4-nitrophenolate ion formation. However, in the absence of a catalyst, the additional conversion of 4-nitrophenolate ions to colorless amino phenol (4-AP) by NaBH4 takes a long time, and for a few dyes, even with a large amount of reducing agent, it is not accomplished [43]. A fast and good catalytic reduction of 4-NP with only NaBH4 would be good enough; unfortunately, it seems to be impossible to achieve it without a catalyst. Thus, a fast and good catalytic reduction of 4-NP with only NaBH4 (without a catalyst) cannot be carried out. The excellent reduction of 4-NP requires an efficient catalyst in the presence of NaBH4, which can speed up the reduction reaction. Therefore, CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst was tested for the reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP. After the introduction of CuO-TiO2 to the mixture, the absorbance band intensity at 400 nm decreased, with the gradual disappearance of the bright yellow color. At the same time, a new absorbance band appeared at 300 nm. These results were signs of the complete reduction of the nitro group (-NO2) in 4-NP to an amine group (-NH2). Figure 5a shows the changes taking place during the catalytic reduction of 4-NP by CuO-TiO2, where the reduction occurs in 12.0 min according to the spectra. However, the novel nanocatalyst beads CMC/CuO-TiO2 were also evaluated for the catalytic reduction of 4-NP. As Figure 5a confirmed that CMC/CuO-TiO2 performed a good catalytic reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP in a shorter period of time compared to CuO-TiO2, where the catalytic reduction of 4-NP to 4-AP was accomplished in only 3.0 min. The fast reduction ability of CMC/CuO-TiO2 might be due to the contribution of the Al+3 ion in the reduction, which had been used as a crosslinker in the preparation of beads.
Similarly, under the same procedure described above, the catalytic behaviors of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads were also tested for the catalytic reactions of nitrophenol isomers such as 2-NP and 2,6-DNP into their corresponding amino groups in the presence of 0.5 mL of 0.1 M NaBH4. Figure 5 indicates that pure 2-NP and 2,6-DNP had strong absorbance bands at 317 nm and 428 nm, respectively. In the beginning, the catalytic reduction was examined in the absence of the nanocatalyst beads. The color of the nitrophenol isomers (2-NP and 2,6-DNP) changed from pale yellow to bright yellow, besides a slight shift of both absorption bands with only excess NaBH4. However, using 5 mg of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads, the 2-NP and 2,6-DNP were reduced to 2-AP and 2,6-DAP, respectively. The intensity of the absorbance peak at 413 and 428 nm steadily dropped as the process progressed, while a new absorbance band developed at 280 nm with increased intensity (Figure 5c,d). The spectra revealed that the reduction reaction of 2-NP and 2,6-DNP occurred within 3.0 min. The removal percentage of the reduction process was estimated using Equation (1). The reduction of nitrophenol isomers 4-NP, 2-NP, and 2,6-DNP were found to be 90.24%, 87.5%, and 85.43%, respectively. The CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst was efficient, selective, and had excellent catalytic activity toward nitrophenol isomers.
Figure 6 depicts the schematic representation of 4-NP reduction mechanism. In accordance with this scheme, it is proposed that initially both BH4− and 4-NP get adsorbed on the surface of the catalyst. The catalyst enhances the transfer of electron from BH4− to 4-NP and thus decreases the activation energy of the reaction.

Effect of 4-Nitrophenol Concentration

The effect of 4-NP concentration on the catalytic activity of CMC/CuO-TiO2 was studied using 0.1 M NaBH4. For this investigation, three different concentrations of 4-NP solution (0.13, 0.08, and 0.04 mM) were prepared to determine the catalytic effects of 4-NP concentration. Figure 7 indicated the spectra of a range of 4-NP concentrations, in which 0.13 mM concentration reduced up to 90% in 3.0 min and up to 83% and 80% in 2.0 and 1.30 min for 0.08 and 0.04 mM, respectively. As a result, it was noticed that as compared to higher concentrations of 4-NP, the low concentration could be easily reduced while the catalyst quantity remained constant [1].

Effect of NaBH4 Concentration

The influence of NaBH4 concentration on the catalytic reduction of 4-NP was studied by using CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads. Various doses of NaBH4 (0.1 M and 0.05 M) were employed in the presence of 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads in this work. Based on the results, increasing the NaBH4 concentration led to speeding up the reaction, as shown in the UV–Vis spectra of the catalytic reduction of 4-NP in Figure 8. With 0.1 M and 0.05 M, 4-NP was reduced up to 90% and 92%, respectively. As a result, it was shown that 0.1 M NaBH4 concentration could speed up the reaction and reduce the 4-NP in less time than 0.05 M concentration of NaBH4.

3.2.2. Reduction of Organic Dyes

Organic dyes are widely used in the textile industry, and their non-biodegradability, toxicity, mutagenicity, and carcinogenicity make them a growing source of pollution in the environment. The goal of this investigation was to see how well the newly designed nanocatalyst beads reduce two types of organic dyes: methyl orange (MO) and eosin yellow (EY). UV–Vis spectroscopy was used to record the catalytic reduction, as shown in Figure 9a,b.
The catalytic reduction of MO and EY was tested using 5 mg of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads in the presence of NaBH4. In the addition of only NaBH4, no reductive reaction could take place between NaBH4 and the dyes. However, a regular decrease in the adsorption band was observed in the presence of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads. The catalytic reduction was recorded via UV–Vis spectroscopy. As clearly seen from (Figure 9a,b), the removal (%) of EY and MO occurred within 1.0–4.0 min, which reduced MO and EY up to 93.14%, and 91.5%, respectively (Figure 9d). Electrons were transferred from BH4− to CMC/CuO-TiO2 and then to acceptor dye molecules, reducing the azo (-N=N-) group found in dye molecules, according to recent results [1].

3.2.3. Reduction of Inorganic Complex

Inorganic contaminants such as K3[Fe(CN)6] are known as pollutants that are distributed in the environment in either soil or water. Accordingly, K3[Fe(CN)6] can cause acute toxicity and carcinogenicity at very low levels, and it has been proven to easily accumulate inside human beings via food chains [44,45]. Due to this, K3[Fe(CN)6] was chosen as one of our selected pollutants. To test the catalytic activity of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads, they were used to catalyze the reduction of K3[Fe(CN)6]. The UV–Vis absorbance of the catalytic reduction of K3[Fe(CN)6] was monitored to check the progress of the K3[Fe(CN)6] reaction. Using CMC/CuO-TiO2, the absorption band of K3[Fe(CN)6] at 420 nm was gradually lowered in 1.0 min, with the yellow color disappearing, indicating the complete reduction of K3[Fe(CN)6] to K4[Fe(CN)6] [44]. Figure 9c shows the transformation of 90% of K3[Fe(CN)6] to K4[Fe(CN)6], which was obtained in only 1.0 min.
An electron-transfer reaction is the probable mechanism for the reaction of K3[Fe(CN)6] in the presence of catalyst beads and NaBH4, as indicated in Equation (2) below [1,44].
BH4− (aq)+ 8[Fe(CN)6]−3 (aq) + 3H2O (aq) → H2BO3− (aq) + 8[Fe(CN)6]−4 (aq) + 8H+
As a result, there are two steps in the catalytic reaction mechanism of K3[Fe(CN)6]. The reducing agent NaBH4 causes the polarization of the catalyst nanocomposite beads at first. Subsequently, electrons are transported from the catalyst surface to the [Fe(CN)6]−3 pollutant, where they are reduced to [Fe(CN)6]−4. The obtained reduction results of all studied compounds were compared with the literature, as shown in Table 1 [1,6,18,27,42,46,47,48].

3.2.4. Catalyst Stability and Reusability

Besides the activity of catalysts, stability is also a critical factor for evaluating their efficiency and potential applications. For this study, the stability of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads was examined regarding the catalytic reduction of 4-NP, and we found that the beads were stable for up to more than one year without any degradation or loss of activity. The recyclability of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads was also studied for the catalytic reduction of 4-NP under the same conditions described in the experimental part. The CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads were examined over four cycles, and the beads were washed three times after each use with distilled water and dried at RT. The catalytic reduction of 4-NP took 3.0 min for the first use, and 4.0 min, 6.0 min, and 11.0 min for the second, third, and fourth cycles, respectively (Figure 10). This suggests that the catalyst was active and effective in the reduction of 4-NP. Thus, the CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were able to be used up to four cycles.

3.2.5. Catalytic Efficiency of CMC/CuO-TiO2 Beads in Real Samples

To evaluate the efficiency of the CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads under optimized conditions, four types of real samples were used (orange juice, full-fat milk, seawater, and wastewater), which were collected or obtained from a local market (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Real samples were prepared by diluting approximately 1 mL of each sample in 100 mL of deionized water individually. Afterwards, 2.5 mL of each sample was then transferred into a cuvette cell, together with 0.5 mL of 0.13 mM 4-NP, 0.5 mL of 0.1 M NaBH4, and 5 mg of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads. A UV–Vis spectrophotometer was used to monitor the catalytic reduction of 4-NP. As can be observed from the data in Table 2, full-fat milk and seawater have low reduction percentages, which reduced by up to 79.4% in 10.0 min and 82.5% in 11.0 min, respectively. This is because there was a lot of interference in these samples, which can impact the catalytic reduction of 4-NP. The reduction of 4-NP in the other samples took 5.0 min and was 92–89%. The results showed that the CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst was effective in decolorizing and reducing of 4-NP from the real samples.

4. Conclusions

Herein, a simple and potentially cost-effective method was used for the fabrication of nanocatalyst CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads. The CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads were analyzed using SEM, XRD and EDS. The developed beads exhibited high catalytic activity toward nitrophenol isomers (4-NP, 2-NP, and 2,6-DNP), organic dyes (MO and EY), and inorganic complex K3[Fe(CN6)]. The developed materials can act as promising nanocatalysts for water treatment purposes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.B.K.; methodology, N.M.; software, K.A.; validation, K.A. and A.M.A.; formal analysis, E.Y.D. and K.A.; investigation, E.M.B. and N.M.; resources, A.M.A.; data curation, E.M.B.; writing—original draft preparation, N.M.; writing—review and editing, E.M.B., S.B.K., E.Y.D. and K.A.; supervision, E.Y.D. and A.M.A.; funding acquisition, E.M.B. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia under grant no. (G: 54-247-1441).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

This project was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research (DSR) at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia under grant no. (G: 54-247-1441). The authors, therefore, acknowledge with thanks DSR for technical and financial support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Maslamani, N.; Khan, S.B.; Danish, E.Y.; Bakhsh, E.M.; Zakeeruddin, S.M.; Asiri, A.M. Carboxymethyl cellulose nanocomposite beads as super-efficient catalyst for the reduction of organic and inorganic pollutants. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 167, 101–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Sohni, S.; Norulaini, N.N.; Hashim, R.; Khan, S.B.; Fadhullah, W.; Omar, A.M. Physicochemical characterization of Malaysian crop and agro-industrial biomass residues as renewable energy resources. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2018, 111, 642–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ismail, M.; Gul, S.; Khan, M.; Asiri, A.M.; Khan, S.B. Green synthesis of zerovalent copper nanoparticles for efficient reduction of toxic azo dyes congo red and methyl orange. Green Process. Synth. 2019, 8, 135–143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Khan, S.A.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Layered double hydroxide of Cd-Al/C for the mineralization and de-coloration of dyes in solar and visible light exposure. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 35107. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  5. Jang, E.S.; Khan, S.B.; Seo, J.; Akhtar, K.; Choi, J.; Kim, K.I.; Han, H. Synthesis and characterization of novel UV-curable PU-Si hybrids: Influence of silica on thermal, mechanical, and water sorption properties of polyurethane acrylates. Macromol. Res. 2011, 19, 1006–1013. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Khan, S.B.; Bakhsh, E.M.; Akhtar, K.; Kamal, T.; Shen, Y.; Asiri, A.M. Copper oxide-antimony oxide entrapped alginate hydrogel as efficient catalyst for selective reduction of 2-nitrophenol. Polymers 2022, 14, 458. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Maslamani, N.; Manandhar, E.; Geremia, D.K.; Logue, B.A. ICE concentration linked with extractive stirrer (ICECLES). Anal. Chim. Acta 2016, 941, 41–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  8. Kim, D.; Jung, J.; Kim, Y.; Lee, M.; Seo, J.; Khan, S.B. Structure and thermal properties of octadecane/expanded graphite composites as shape-stabilized phase change materials. Int. J. Heat Mass Transf. 2016, 95, 735–741. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Zhang, P.; Sui, Y.; Xiao, G.; Wang, Y.; Wang, C.; Liu, B.; Zou, G.; Zou, B. Facile fabrication of faceted copper nanocrystals with high catalytic activity for p-nitrophenol reduction. J. Mater. Chem. A 2013, 1, 1632–1638. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Farooqi, Z.H.; Sakhawat, T.; Khan, S.R.; Kanwal, F.; Usman, M.; Begum, R. Synthesis, characterization and fabrication of copper nanoparticles in N-isopropylacrylamide based co-polymer microgels for degradation of p-nitrophenol. Mater. Sci. 2015, 33, 185–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  11. Benhadria, N.; Hachemaoui, M.; Zaoui, F.; Mokhtar, A.; Boukreris, S.; Attar, T.; Belarbi, L.; Boukoussa, B. Catalytic reduction of methylene blue dye by copper oxide nanoparticles. J. Clust. Sci. 2022, 33, 249–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Ren, Z.-H.; Li, H.-T.; Gao, Q.; Wang, H.; Han, B.; Xia, K.-S.; Zhou, C.-G. Au nanoparticles embedded on urchin-like TiO2 nanosphere: An efficient catalyst for dyes degradation and 4-nitrophenol reduction. Mater. Des. 2017, 121, 167–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Guo, X.; Chen, F. Removal of arsenic by bead cellulose loaded with iron oxyhydroxide from groundwater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 6808–6818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Sundaram, M.; Kalpana, S.; Sivaganesan, V.; Nandhakumar, E. Studies on the catalytic activity of CuO/TiO2/ZnO ternary nanocomposites prepared via one step hydrothermal green approach. Mater. Res. Express 2019, 6, 125043. [Google Scholar]
  15. Li, P.; Zhang, X.; Wang, J.; Xu, B.; Zhang, X.; Fan, G.; Zhou, L.; Liu, X.; Zhang, K.; Jiang, W. Binary CuO/TiO2 nanocomposites as high-performance catalysts for tandem hydrogenation of nitroaromatics. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 2021, 629, 127383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Bakre, P.V.; Kamat, D.P.; Mandrekar, K.S.; Tilve, S.G.; Ghosh, N.N. CuO-NiO-TiO2 bimetallic nanocomposites for catalytic applications. Mol. Catal. 2020, 496, 111193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Akbari, R. Green synthesis and catalytic activity of copper nanoparticles supported on TiO2 as a highly active and recyclable catalyst for the reduction of nitro-compounds and degradation of organic dyes. J. Mater. Sci. Mater. Electron. 2021, 32, 15801–15813. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Kianfar, A.H.; Arayesh, M.A. Synthesis, characterization and investigation of photocatalytic and catalytic applications of Fe3O4/TiO2/CuO nanoparticles for degradation of MB and reduction of nitrophenols. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2020, 8, 103640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Bathla, A.; Rather, R.A.; Poonia, T.; Pal, B. Morphology dependent photocatalytic activity of CuO/CuO–TiO2 nanocatalyst for degradation of methyl orange under sunlight. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2020, 20, 3123–3130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  20. Gupta, S.; Pathak, A.K.; Ameta, C.; Punjabi, P.B. Microwave-induced expeditious synthesis of biologically active substituted imidazoles using CuO-TiO2-GO nanocomposite as a recyclable catalyst. Lett. Org. Chem. 2021, 18, 318–333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Lee, Y.; Kim, D.; Seo, J.; Han, H.; Khan, S.B. Preparation and characterization of poly(propylene carbonate)/exfoliated graphite nanocomposite films with improved thermal stability, mechanical properties and barrier properties. Polym. Int. 2013, 62, 1386–1394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Ismail, M.; Khan, M.; Akhtar, K.; Asiri, A.M.; Khan, S.B. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles: A colorimetric optical sensor for detection of hexavalent chromium and ammonia in aqueous solution. Phys. E Low Dimens. Syst. Nanostruct. 2018, 103, 367–376. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Khan, S.B.; Khan, S.A.; Asiri, A.M. A fascinating combination of Co, Ni and Al nanomaterial for oxygen evolution reaction. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2016, 370, 445–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Sikora, E.; Katona, K.K.; Muránszky, G.; Bánhidi, O.; Kristály, F.; Szabó, J.T.; Windisch, M.; Fiser, B.; Vanyorek, L. Cellulose-based catalyst design for efficient chlorate reduction. Arab. J. Chem. 2021, 14, 103202. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Anwar, Y.; Ali, H.S.M.; Rehman, W.U.; Hemeg, H.A.; Khan, S.A. Antibacterial films of alginate-CoNi-coated cellulose paper stabilized Co NPs for dyes and nitrophenol degradation. Polymers 2021, 13, 4122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. El Sayed, A.M.; Saber, S. Structural, optical analysis, and Poole–Frenkel emission in NiO/CMC–PVP: Bio-nanocomposites for optoelectronic applications. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 2022, 163, 110590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Althomali, R.H.; Alamry, K.A.; Hussein, M.A.; Khan, A.; Alosaimi, A.M. A green nanocomposite based modified cellulose/TiO2/cinnamon bark for the reduction of toxic organic compounds using spectrophotometric technique. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2021, 12, 947–966. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kamal, T.; Ahmad, I.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Bacterial cellulose as support for biopolymer stabilized catalytic cobalt nanoparticles. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 135, 1162–1170. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Khan, M.S.J.; Khan, S.B.; Kamal, T.; Asiri, A.M. Agarose biopolymer coating on polyurethane sponge as host for catalytic silver metal nanoparticles. Polym. Test. 2019, 78, 105983. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Bakhsh, E.M.; Akhtar, K.; Fagieh, T.M.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Development of alginate@tin oxide–cobalt oxide nanocomposite based catalyst for the treatment of wastewater. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2021, 187, 386–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Maslamani, N.; Khan, S.B.; Danish, E.Y.; Bakhsh, E.M.; Akhtar, K.; Asiri, A.M. Metal nanoparticles supported chitosan coated carboxymethyl cellulose beads as a catalyst for the selective removal of 4-nitrophenol. Chemosphere 2022, 291, 133010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Jang, E.S.; Khan, S.B.; Seo, J.; Nam, Y.H.; Choi, W.J.; Akhtar, K.; Han, H. Synthesis and characterization of novel UV-curable polyurethane–clay nanohybrid: Influence of organically modified layered silicates on the properties of polyurethane. Prog. Org. Coat. 2011, 71, 36–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Khan, S.B.; Rahman, M.M.; Jang, E.S.; Akhtar, K.; Han, H. Special susceptive aqueous ammonia chemi-sensor: Extended applications of novel UV-curable polyurethane-clay nanohybrid. Talanta 2011, 84, 1005–1010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  34. Khan, S.A.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Toward the design of Zn–Al and Zn–Cr LDH wrapped in activated carbon for the solar assisted de-coloration of organic dyes. RSC Adv. 2016, 6, 83196–83208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Kamal, T.; Ali, N.; Naseem, A.A.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Polymer nanocomposite membranes for antifouling nanofiltration. Recent Pat. Nanotechnol. 2016, 10, 189–201. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  36. Tahseen, K.; Ikram, A.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. Agar hydrogel supported metal nanoparticles catalyst for pollutants degradation in water. Desalin. Water Treat. 2018, 136, 290–298. [Google Scholar]
  37. Rokhmat, M.; Wibowo, E.; Abdullah, M. Performance improvement of TiO2/CuO solar cell by growing copper particle using fix current electroplating method. Procedia Eng. 2017, 170, 72–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Liu, L.; Gu, X.; Sun, C.; Li, H.; Deng, Y.; Gao, F.; Dong, L. In situ loading of ultra-small Cu2O particles on TiO2 nanosheets to enhance the visible-light photoactivity. Nanoscale 2012, 4, 6351–6359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Abdel-Galil, A.; Ali, H.; Atta, A.; Balboul, M. Influence of nanostructured TiO2 additives on some physical characteristics of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci. 2014, 7, 36–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Ali, H.; Atta, A.; Senna, M. Physico-chemical properties of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)/nanosized titanium oxide (TiO2) gamma irradiated composite. Arab. J. Nucl. Sci. Appl. 2015, 48, 44–52. [Google Scholar]
  41. Shoukat, A.; Wahid, F.; Khan, T.; Siddique, M.; Nasreen, S.; Yang, G.; Ullah, M.W.; Khan, R. Titanium oxide-bacterial cellulose bioadsorbent for the removal of lead ions from aqueous solution. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 2019, 129, 965–971. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Maslamani, N.; Bakhsh, E.M.; Khan, S.B.; Danish, E.Y.; Akhtar, K.; Fagieh, T.M.; Su, X.; Asiri, A.M. Chitosan@carboxymethylcellulose/CuO-CO2O3 nanoadsorbent as a super catalyst for the removal of water pollutants. Gels 2022, 8, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Ahmad, I.; Kamal, T.; Khan, S.B.; Asiri, A.M. An efficient and easily retrievable dip catalyst based on silver nanoparticles/chitosan-coated cellulose filter paper. Cellulose 2016, 23, 3577–3588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Veerakumar, P.; Salamalai, K.; Thanasekaran, P.; Lin, K.-C. Simple preparation of porous carbon-supported ruthenium: Propitious catalytic activity in the reduction of ferrocyanate(III) and a cationic dye. ACS Omega 2018, 3, 12609–12621. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. Xia, Q.; Fu, S.; Ren, G.; Chai, F.; Jiang, J.; Qu, F. Fabrication of Fe3O4@Au hollow spheres with recyclable and efficient catalytic properties. New J. Chem. 2016, 40, 818–824. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Seo, Y.S.; Ahn, E.-Y.; Park, J.; Kim, T.Y.; Hong, J.E.; Kim, K.; Park, Y.; Park, Y. Catalytic reduction of 4-nitrophenol with gold nanoparticles synthesized by caffeic acid. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2017, 12, 7. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  47. Khan, S.A.; Bakhsh, E.M.; Akhtar, K.; Khan, S.B. A template of cellulose acetate polymer-ZnAl/C layered double hydroxide composite fabricated with Ni NPs: Applications in the hydrogenation of nitrophenols and dyes degradation. Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectrosc. 2020, 241, 118671. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Amir, M.; Kurtan, U.; Baykal, A.; Sözeri, H. MnFe2O4@PANI@Ag heterogeneous nanocatalyst for degradation of industrial aqueous organic pollutants. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2016, 32, 134–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Polymers 15 01502 g001 550
Figure 1. Schematic representation for the preparation of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads.
Figure 1. Schematic representation for the preparation of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads.
Polymers 15 01502 g001
Polymers 15 01502 g002 550
Figure 2. SEM images of (a,a’) CuO-TiO2 and (b,b’) CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Figure 2. SEM images of (a,a’) CuO-TiO2 and (b,b’) CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Polymers 15 01502 g002
Polymers 15 01502 g003 550
Figure 3. XRD pattern of CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Figure 3. XRD pattern of CuO-TiO2 and CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Polymers 15 01502 g003
Polymers 15 01502 g004 550
Figure 4. EDS spectrum of (a,a’) CuO-TiO2 and (b,b’) CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Figure 4. EDS spectrum of (a,a’) CuO-TiO2 and (b,b’) CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Polymers 15 01502 g004
Polymers 15 01502 g005 550
Figure 5. (a) UV–Vis spectra for 4-NP reduction using 5 mg CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4, (b–d), 4-NP, 2-NP, and 2,6-DNP reduction using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4, (e) removal percentage of 4-NP, 2-NP and 2,6-DNP using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Figure 5. (a) UV–Vis spectra for 4-NP reduction using 5 mg CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4, (b–d), 4-NP, 2-NP, and 2,6-DNP reduction using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4, (e) removal percentage of 4-NP, 2-NP and 2,6-DNP using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Polymers 15 01502 g005
Polymers 15 01502 g006 550
Figure 6. Schematic representation for the catalytic reduction of 4-NP.
Figure 6. Schematic representation for the catalytic reduction of 4-NP.
Polymers 15 01502 g006
Polymers 15 01502 g007 550
Figure 7. UV–Vis spectra for (a) 0.04, (b) 0.08, and (c) 0.13 mM 4-NP using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Figure 7. UV–Vis spectra for (a) 0.04, (b) 0.08, and (c) 0.13 mM 4-NP using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Polymers 15 01502 g007
Polymers 15 01502 g008 550
Figure 8. UV–Vis spectra for 0.13 mM 4-NP in the presence of (a) 0.5 M and (b) 0.1 M NaBH4 using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Figure 8. UV–Vis spectra for 0.13 mM 4-NP in the presence of (a) 0.5 M and (b) 0.1 M NaBH4 using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2.
Polymers 15 01502 g008
Polymers 15 01502 g009 550
Figure 9. UV–Vis spectra for catalytic reduction of (a) MO, (b) EY, and (c) K3[Fe(CN)6] using CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads in the presence of NaBH4, (d) removal percentage of MO, EY, and K3[Fe(CN)6] using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Figure 9. UV–Vis spectra for catalytic reduction of (a) MO, (b) EY, and (c) K3[Fe(CN)6] using CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads in the presence of NaBH4, (d) removal percentage of MO, EY, and K3[Fe(CN)6] using 5 mg CMC/CuO-TiO2 in the presence of NaBH4.
Polymers 15 01502 g009
Polymers 15 01502 g010 550
Figure 10. UV–Vis spectra for recyclability of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads toward the catalytic reduction of 0.13 mM 4-NP.
Figure 10. UV–Vis spectra for recyclability of CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads toward the catalytic reduction of 0.13 mM 4-NP.
Polymers 15 01502 g010
Table
Table 1. Comparison of the catalytic reduction of 4-NP, MO, EY, and K3[Fe(CN)6] by using CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads in the presence of NaBH4 with other reported catalysts.
Table 1. Comparison of the catalytic reduction of 4-NP, MO, EY, and K3[Fe(CN)6] by using CMC/CuO-TiO2 beads in the presence of NaBH4 with other reported catalysts.
PollutantCatalystTime (s)Reference
4-NPCMC/CuO-TiO2180This Work
4-NPCo-Cu/CIN/SCMC/TiO2240[27]
4-NPcf-CA-AuNPs900[46]
4-NPFe3O4/TiO2/CuO120[18]
MOCMC/CuO-TiO2120This Work
MOCA-ZA10@Ni NPs1080[47]
MONi/Cs@CMC/CuO-Co2O3120[42]
EYCMC/CuO-TiO2240This Work
EYNi/Cs@CMC/CuO-Co2O3360[42]
EYMnFe2O4@PANI@Ag420[48]
K3[Fe(CN)6]CMC/CuO-TiO260This Work
K3[Fe(CN)6]Ni/Cs@CMC/CuO-Co2O3360[42]
K3[Fe(CN)6]Alg@Cu2O-Sb2O3180[6]
K3[Fe(CN)6]CMC/CuO-NiO40[1]
Table
Table 2. Application of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads on four types of real samples spiked with 4-NP.
Table 2. Application of CMC/CuO-TiO2 nanocatalyst beads on four types of real samples spiked with 4-NP.
Real SampleReduction Time (min)% Reduction
Orange Juice5.092.6%
Full-Fat Milk10.079.4%
Wastewater5.089.2
Seawater11.082.5%
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Bakhsh, E.M.; Khan, S.B.; Maslamani, N.; Danish, E.Y.; Akhtar, K.; Asiri, A.M. Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Copper Oxide–Titanium Oxide Based Nanocatalyst Beads for the Reduction of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants. Polymers 2023, 15, 1502. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061502

AMA Style

Bakhsh EM, Khan SB, Maslamani N, Danish EY, Akhtar K, Asiri AM. Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Copper Oxide–Titanium Oxide Based Nanocatalyst Beads for the Reduction of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants. Polymers. 2023; 15(6):1502. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061502

Chicago/Turabian Style

Bakhsh, Esraa M., Sher Bahadar Khan, Nujud Maslamani, Ekram Y. Danish, Kalsoom Akhtar, and Abdullah M. Asiri. 2023. "Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Copper Oxide–Titanium Oxide Based Nanocatalyst Beads for the Reduction of Organic and Inorganic Pollutants" Polymers 15, no. 6: 1502. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15061502

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop