Next Article in Journal
Effects of Node Position and Electric Conductivity of Nutrient Solution on Adventitious Rooting of Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus L.) Cuttings
Next Article in Special Issue
Yield-Related Traits of 20 Spring Camelina Genotypes Grown in a Multi-Environment Study in Serbia
Previous Article in Journal
Salinity Stress as an Elicitor for Phytochemicals and Minerals Accumulation in Selected Leafy Vegetables of Brassicaceae
Previous Article in Special Issue
Stability and Variability of Camelina sativa (L.) Crantz Economically Valuable Traits in Various Eco-Geographical Conditions of the Russian Federation
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Agronomy
Volume 11
Issue 2
10.3390/agronomy11020362
agronomy-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oil of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. Aerial Parts: First Assessment against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria

by
Hamza Zine
1,*,
Manar Ibrahimi
1,2,
Souad Loqman
2,
Eleni G. Papazoglou
3,
Soukaina Ouhaddou
4,
Sara Elgadi
1,
Yedir Ouhdouch
1,5,
Rachid Hakkou
6,7,
Mariam El Adnani
8 and
Ahmed Ouhammou
1
1
Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology, Agrosciences and Environment, Faculty of Sciences-Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, BP. 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco
2
Laboratory of Microbiology and Virology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cadi Ayyad University, BP. 7010, Marrakesh 40000, Morocco
3
Laboratory of Systematic Botany, Department of Crop Science, Agricultural University of Athens, 11855 Athens, Greece
4
Laboratory of Agri-Food, Biotechnology and Valorization of Plant Resources, Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Cadi Ayyad University, BP. 2390, Marrakech 40000, Morocco
5
Agro Bio Sciences Program, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Benguerir BP. 43150, Morocco
6
IMED-Lab, Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, BP. 549, Marrakech 40000, Morocco
7
Mining Environment & Circular Economy (EMEC) Program, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Ben Guerir BP. 43150, Morocco
8
Laboratory of Mining, Environment and Sustainable Development, School of Mines of Rabat, Av. Hadj Ahmed Cherkaoui, Rabat BP. 753, Morocco
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2021, 11(2), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020362
Submission received: 7 January 2021 / Revised: 2 February 2021 / Accepted: 11 February 2021 / Published: 17 February 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Oilseed Crops for Biofuel and Biobased Applications)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. is a perennial halophyte that has received much attention for studies of revegetation of marginal lands in arid and semi-arid environments. It was, recently, demonstrated that there are no risks in terms of contamination of essential oil (EO) from growing plant on such land. Interest in exploring the antibacterial and antioxidant potential of A. semibaccata EO has consequently been renewed. The objective of this study was to investigate the chemical composition, as well as the antioxidant and antibacterial activities of A. semibaccata EO. The antibacterial activity was evaluated against native (drug-sensitive) and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria by testing the EO alone and in combination with conventional antibiotics. The chemical composition of EO was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, 52 chemical compounds were identified, and 2-Methoxy-4-vinyl phenol (48.9%), benzaldehyde (6.7%), and benzyl alcohol (6.3%) were found to be the main constituents of EO. Furthermore, the antioxidant activity was evaluated using a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl reducing–scavenging test. The EO from this species possessed high antioxidant activity (938.65 μg TE/g EO). The antibacterial test demonstrated an inhibitory effect on six native and MDR bacterial strains. We found that Staphylococcus aureus (Gram+), Klebsiella pneumoniae (Gram−), and Escherichia coli (Gram−) were more sensitive than MDR strains, with an inhibition zone ranging from 11.16 mm to 12 mm. Moreover, the minimum inhibitory concentration ranged from 3.12 mg/mL to 6.25 mg/mL. The combination of gentamicin and EO revealed a high synergistic effect. The effect on S. aureus and K. pneumoniae showed lower fractional inhibitory concentration indices of 0.39 and 0.27, respectively. The results also revealed that A. semibaccata EO contained compounds with antibacterial potential against MDR bacteria, with antioxidant properties, and with a moderate synergistic effect in combination with gentamicin. The EO from A. semibaccata could be considered a new and potential source of natural antioxidant and antibacterial agents. These findings make A. semibaccata an excellent choice for the revegetation of marginal lands with the subsequent use of biomass for the production of EO with significant potential in the control of microbial infection.

1. Introduction

The exploitation of marginal and saline land to produce useful biomass has attracted interest worldwide [1,2,3,4]. Plant species with valuable biomass in terms of bioenergy, biomaterials, and essential oil (EO) production may play a primary role in the revegetation of these lands, providing environmental and socioeconomic benefits [5,6,7]. Species Atriplex L. genus have been chiefly recommended for the restoration of saline and marginal lands [8].
Over thousands of years, the use of natural products has been part of traditional medicine [9,10,11,12]. Several salt-marsh species (Atriplex L.) have traditionally been used for medical aims, such as A. vestita (Thunb.) Aellen, A. hortensis L., A. halimus L., A. confertifolia (Torr. & Frém.) S. Watson, A. portulacoides L., and others [13,14]. Interest in these species is currently increasing due to their eminent content of bioactive compounds [14], such as A. semibaccata R.Br.
Given its abundance in arid and semi-arid areas, its abiotic stress tolerance, and its suitability for use in reclamation, the Atriplex L. genus is interesting to explore in terms of the antibacterial potential of EO, especially in light of the worldwide spread of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria [15]. MDR bacteria pose an increasing hazard to public health worldwide [16], and bacteria continue to develop resistance to many of the currently available antibacterial drugs [17,18,19]. However, many plant species have not been screened for antibacterial activity of their EO against such bacteria. Moreover, an avenue that has not been widely explored involves utilizing new pharmaceutical products, which have original and multiple mechanisms of action, synergistically with current agents, which may be more effective against MDR bacteria [20,21]. Importantly, Lal et al. [22] and Zheljazkov et al. [23] demonstrated that EO extracted from vegetal crops grown in contaminated environments were free from the risk of heavy-metal contamination.
A. semibaccata is a perennial Amaranthaceae species [24], originally from Australia and introduced into several regions of the world as a drought- and salt-tolerant forage crop [25]. It became a naturalized plant in Morocco, distributed in the Saharan and middle Atlantic regions, including the Haouz area [25]. A. semibaccata is a xero-halophyte species, that tolerates moderate and high salinity (up to 15 dS/m) and considered a pioneer plant in clay and silty loam soils [26].
The current work was undertaken to identify the chemical composition of A. semibaccata EO, to evaluate its antioxidant and antibacterial activities against MDR bacteria, and finally, to explore the antibacterial synergistic effect of A. semibaccata EO and conventional antibiotics on MDR bacteria. As far as we know, the present novel research investigated the antibacterial activity of A. semibaccata OE against MDR bacteria. Moreover, no other prior studies have investigated the synergistic interaction between A. semibaccata EO and conventional antibiotics.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material and Essential Oil (EO) Extraction

In March 2019, the aerial biomass (2500 g) of several A. semibaccata plants was harvested from an experimental field located at phosphate mine overburdens in the Kettara region, Morocco (470 m above sea level; 31°51′36″ N and 8°9′36″ W). A specimen of A. semibaccata was deposited and conserved under the voucher specimen code MARK-13 000 at the Regional Herbarium “MARK” of the Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, University of Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco.
Extraction of A. semibaccata EO was carried out four times (4 × 150 g) using the following procedure: The collected aerial biomass (2500 g) was initially air-dried at ≈25 °C for 5 days; thereafter, the dried biomass (1650 g) was subjected to hydrodistillation using a Clevenger-type apparatus for 4 h. The obtained EO was dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored in darkness at 4 °C until use.

2.2. Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometric (GC–MS) Analysis

The EO was analyzed using a Trace GC-MS system from Thermo ScientificTM (Trace 1300 GC, USA), fitted with a TG-5MS column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) and used in the electron-impact ionization mode. The temperatures of the injector and the detector were set at 230 and 250 °C, respectively, and the electron-impact ionization energy was 70 eV. For analysis, 1 μl of EO was injected in splitless mode into the GC–MS instrument, and helium gas was used as a carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. The sample was pre-diluted in acetone at a 1:100 ratio, and the oven temperature was programmed to increase at a rate of 3 °C/min from 60 °C to 230 °C, which was maintained for 10 min. Finally, the chemical components were quantified by external standard method using calibration curves generated by running GC analysis of representative compounds.

2.3. Antioxidant Activity

2.3.1. Free Radical-Scavenging Activity Using 2,2-Diphenyl-1-Picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)

The antioxidant activity of the EO extracted from the aerial parts of A. semibaccata was assessed by a 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) test [27], where 50 μl of the EO diluted at different concentrations in methanol was mixed with 2 mL of methanolic DPPH solution (60 μM). After 20 min of incubation at room temperature in darkness, the absorbance of the samples was measured at 517 nm. A blank containing the same amount of methanol and DPPH solution was used as a negative control, while butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and quercetin were used as positive controls. The radical-scavenging activity was calculated using the following formula:
DPPH scavenging activity (%) = [(Ablank − Asample/Ablank) × 100]
where Ablank is the absorbance of the blank sample (control) and Asample is the absorbance of the EO test sample. The sample concentration providing 50% inhibition (IC50) was calculated by plotting the percentage of inhibition against the concentration of the EO sample (y = 116.73x − 0.1372; R2 = 0.99). The analyses were performed in triplicate, and the results were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation (SD). In addition, the radical-scavenging activity was reported as microgram Trolox equivalents per gram of EO (μg TE/g EO).

2.3.2. Reducing-Power Assay

The EO reductive potential was evaluated by following the procedure of Oyaizu [28]. Briefly, 1 mL of different concentrations of samples (EO and control substance) was mixed with phosphate buffer (2.5 mL, 0.2 mM, pH 6.6) and potassium ferricyanide (2.5 mL, 1%). The mixture was then incubated at 50 °C for 20 min. Then, after incubation, 2.5 mL of trichloroacetic acid 10% was added to stop the reaction. The mixture was centrifuged at 650× g for 10 min. Finally, the supernatant (2.5 mL) was removed and mixed with 2.5 mL of distilled water and 0.5 mL of 0.1% ferric chloride (FeCl3), and the absorbance was measured at 700 nm. BHT and quercetin were used as positive controls.
The concentration of the sample providing an absorbance of 0.5 (i.e., IC50) was calculated from the graph of the absorbance at 700 nm against sample concentration, and the results were expressed as an average of triplicate measurements.

2.4. Antibacterial Activity

2.4.1. Microorganism Strains

The antibacterial activity of the EO was tested against a panel of pathogenic bacteria namely methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 12493), Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218), and Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700603), as well as methicillin-sensitive strains of S. aureus (ATCC 25923), E. coli (ATCC 25922), and K. pneumoniae (ATCC 35657), all of which were provided by the Laboratory of Microbiology and Virology, the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cadi Ayyad University.

2.4.2. Antibacterial Screening

The examination of the antibacterial activity of the EO was evaluated using the agar disc-diffusion method as recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guideline M07-A10 [29]. For this purpose, sterile and saline suspensions at 0.5 McFarland standards were prepared from overnight cultures of the respective bacteria. The bacterial suspension was then streaked on Mueller-Hinton agar plates using a sterile swab. Then, 10 μl of EO at a concentration of 896 mg/mL were applied to sterile filter paper discs (6 mm in diameter) and placed on the surface of the inoculated medium. The plates were maintained at 4 °C for 4 h to allow diffusion of the EO and then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. Antibacterial activity was evaluated by measuring the diameter of the growth-inhibition zones after 24 h. Ceftriaxone (30 μg/disc), cefoxitin (30 μg/disc), and gentamicin (15 μg/disc) were used as potent antibiotics for testing MDR bacteria, according to CLSI guideline M02-A12 [30].

2.4.3. Determination of the Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)

The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) was determined using the microdilution broth method [31]. A two-fold serial dilution of EO was prepared in 4% dimethyl sulfoxide, and 100 μL of each dilution was added to micro-wells that were previously inoculated with 100 μL of bacterial suspension. The microplates were then incubated for 18–24 h at 37 °C. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration without visible growth of the tested bacteria, and p-Iodonitrotetrazolium chloride ≥ 97% (Sigma-Aldrich) was used as a microbial growth indicator, while gentamicin was used as a positive control.

2.4.4. Determination of Minimal Bactericidal Concentration (MBC)

The minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) was determined according to CLSI guideline M07-A10 [29]. In brief, 0.1 mL of the suspension from wells without apparent microbial growth after incubation during MIC tests was spread on Mueller-Hinton agar in Petri dishes. The Petri dishes were then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. The lowest concentration of EO at which incubated bacteria were completely killed was taken as the MBC.

2.4.5. Synergistic Interaction between EO from A. Semibaccata and Conventional Antibacterials

The synergistic effect of A. semibaccata EO and the antibacterial agent gentamicin was assessed using a MIC microdilution [21]. This test was achieved using strains that are sensitive to the conventional antibiotic. MICs of antibacterial agents were determined in the presence of EO at a final concentration of MIC/4 for gentamicin. Briefly, 50 μL serial dilutions of gentamicin were added to microwells previously seeded with 100 μL of cell suspension at 108 colony-forming units/mL and containing 50 μL of EO at MIC/4. The microplates were incubated at 37 °C for 18–24 h.
The analysis of the effect of the combination of gentamicin and EO was calculated and expressed in terms of the fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) using the following formula [32]:
FICI = FIC (EO) + FIC (GT)
where GT is gentamicin,
FIC (EO) = MIC of EO in combination with GT/MIC of EO alone
and
FIC (GT) = MIC of GT in combination with EO/MIC of GT alone
To interpret FICI, the system proposed by Didry et al. [32] was adopted; that is, total synergism was found when FICI ≤ 0.5, partial synergism when 0.5 < FICI ≤ 0.75, no effect when 0.75 < FICI ≤ 2, and antagonism when FICI > 2. The gain in antibacterial activity was also calculated and determined as the ratio of the MIC for gentamicin alone to the MIC for gentamicin in combination with EO.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. EO Composition

Hydrodistillation of the aerial parts of A. semibaccata by the Clevenger-type apparatus yielded a dark green and strong-smelling EO, with a density of 0.9 g/mL, and a freezing point above −21 °C. In addition, the average yield was 0.09 ± 0.001% (w/w) based on dried weight.
The GC–MS of the EO resulted in the identification of 52 compounds, representing approximately 83.3% of the total oil (Table 1). The main compound was 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol at 48.9%, followed by benzaldehyde (6.8%), benzyl alcohol (6.3%), and o-xylene (2.1%).
The chemical analysis of A. semibaccata EO revealed the major presence of 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, which, as far as we know, has never been found in EO from other plants of this genus. This compound is a phenolic derivative, exerting a potent anti-inflammatory effect, and it can block the growth of mammalian cells by arresting the cell cycle [33,34]. In another study, EOs from A. semibaccata and A. undulata (Moq.) D. Dietr. were found to have three compounds in common: 3-Hydroxy-beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and vanillin [35]. Boutaoui et al. [35] demonstrated that extracts from aerial parts of A. mollis Desf. contained vanillin, and Chouitah et al. [35] showed that the EO from A. lentiformis (Torr.) S. Wats. contained linalool and 2,3-pinanediol. We also found some of these compounds as minor components of the EO from A. semibaccata.
Furthermore, from A. hortensis leaves, Bylka et al. [36] isolated rare sulphated flavonoids, and Bylka [37] succeeded in isolating new acetylated flavonol glycosides from A. littoralis L. In addition, a previous study indicated the presence of naringin, naringenin 7-O-glucoside, isorhamnetin 3-O-rhamnosyl (1‒6) glucopyranoside, and isorhamnetin 7-O-glucopyranoside in A. farinose Forssk. [38]. More recently, Awaad et al. [39] isolated two new flavonoids from A. lentiformis (Torr.) S. Wats., namely, quercetin 6,4′-dimethoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside and quercetin 4′-methoxy-3-fructo-rhamnoside. According to the same authors, all six compounds exhibited antioxidant activity.

3.2. Antioxidant Activity

Table 2 presents the results regarding the assay of antioxidant activity of A. semibaccata EO. The EO from A. semibaccata displayed high radical-scavenging activity (450 ± 3.39 μg/mL EO) compared to ethanol and chloroform extracts of A. lindleyi Moq., (345.70–332.46 mg/mL) [40]. However, our results are consistent with those provided by Kamal et al. [41] for A. laciniata L. This activity was found to be less impressive than that of quercetin and BHT (IC50 values of 1.07 ± 0.01 μg/mL and 4.21 ± 0.08 μg/mL, respectively).
Aissi et al. [42] reported that EO from Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae) had high activity (993.4 μg TE/g EO), which is close to the value obtained for EO from A. semibaccata (938.65 μg TE/g EO). Furthermore, Awaad et al. [39], Benhammou et al. [43], Gamal et al. [44], and Souda et al. [40] reported that extracts from several species belonging to Atriplex L. For example A. farinosa Forssk, A. nummularia Lindl., A. lindleyi, A. lentiformis (Torr.) S. Watson, and A. halimus exhibited antioxidant activity.

3.3. Antibacterial Activity

The antibacterial properties of A. semibaccata EO and conventional antibiotics were investigated against six pathogenic bacterial strains, including MDR strains (Figure 1 and Table 3). The findings disclosed that the EO of A. semibaccata had an antibacterial effect to different degrees on all the tested strains, including MDR strains, albeit to different degrees. The diameters of the inhibition zones lay between 11.16 ± 0.76 mm and 20.66 ± 0.57 mm, whereas the conventional antibiotics did not display any activity against the MDR strains.
On the basis of the results reported in Table 4 and Figure 2, the MIC and MBC values for A. semibaccata EO were in the range of 3.12 to 6.25 mg/mL. Native bacteria were found to be more sensitive than MDR bacteria, with an appropriate MIC of 3 mg/mL. Concerning the MDR bacteria, methicillin-resistant S. aureus and K. pneumoniae were inhibited at a MIC and an MBC of 6.25 mg/mL, while the EO repressed the growth of E. coli at an MIC value of 3.12 mg/mL. The inactivity of gentamicin against the MDR strains is explained by the resistance of these strains to this agent [45], taking into account that for sensitive strains to gentamicin, MICs start from 2μg/mL. The chemical architecture of the bacterial cell membrane is the main factor involved in its responding negatively or positively to antibacterial agents [45].
The present study demonstrates promising results since the MIC values were found to be equal to the MBC values, indicating a bactericidal effect on both native and methicillin-resistant S. aureus and K. pneumoniae, and native E. coli (ATCC 25922).
According to Chambers and Deleo [45], and Garcia-Alvarez et al. [45], the resistance of methicillin-resistant S. aureus is essentially related to the production of an auxiliary penicillin-binding protein, PBP2a, which renders it resistant to all β-lactams, except for the novel class of cephalosporins. Previous findings suggested that an outbreak of infection with K. pneumoniae occurred as a result of the generation of the production of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) [46]. ESBL plays the main role in increasing the antibacterial resistance of K. pneumoniae [47]. Despite the multitude of antibiotic types that have been developed, the molecular mechanisms of K. pneumoniae’s resistance to antibacterial drugs remain unclear and need to be elucidated [48,49].
To the best of our knowledge, this is pioneering research that examined the antibacterial potential of A. semibaccata EO against MDR bacteria. Therefore, our results can only be compared and discussed regarding closely related species. Benzarti et al. [50] reported that A. semibaccata was previously tested as an antifungal agent. Moreover, according to Siddiqui et al. [13] and Ksouri et al. [14], numerous species of Atriplex L., such as A. hortensis, A. canescens (Pursh) Nutt (≡A. fruticosa Nutt.ex Moq), A. lindleyi subsp. inflata (F.Muell.) Paul G. Wilson (≡A. inflata F.Muell.), A. muricata Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Willd. (≡A. parvifolia Kunth.), A. undulata, A. vestita, and A. portulacoides, have been reported as sources of antifungal, antiviral, and antibacterial compounds through their extracts (e.g., in EO) or their chemical constituents.
The antibacterial potency of A. semibaccata EO might be explained by the fact that its main compound, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, has antibacterial potency [51,52]. Furthermore, the significant presence of other chemical components such as benzaldehyde and benzyl alcohol, also contributes to its antibacterial properties [53,54,55]. Benzaldehyde has been reported to have a bactericidal effect on human pathogens [56,57]. Moreover, benzyl alcohol is one of most frequently employed antibacterial preservatives in commercial peptide and protein products [55,58].

3.4. Synergistic Interactions between A. semibaccata EO and Conventional Antibiotics

Drug synergism between conventional antibacterial agents and plant EOs is a new approach to defeating the defense systems of microorganisms [21,59]. For this reason, our research attempted to explore potential interactions between EO of A. semibaccata and gentamicin as a conventional antibiotic.
The antibacterial effects of the EO with combined conventional antibiotics on selected pathogenic bacteria were explored by the checkboard method, and the results are presented in Table 5. The FIC and the FICI were calculated to evaluate the synergistic activity of the EO in combination with gentamicin. The gain reported in the MIC of gentamicin in combination with A. semibaccata EO is also summarized in Table 5. Gentamicin exhibited a strong synergistic interaction with A. semibaccata EO, achieving a gain of four-fold for native strains of both S. aureus (FICI= 0.39) and K. pneumonia (FICI= 0.27; Table 5).
Results obtained here cannot be compared to other authors’ findings because, as far as we are aware, no previous study has investigated the synergistic interaction between the EO from A. semibaccata and an antibiotic. The present study demonstrated that the interaction between the EO of A. semibaccata and a standard antibiotic (gentamicin) was notably effective using lower doses (MIC/4). EO of A. semibaccata therefore offers high potential for the development of further antibacterial agents for use in the treatment of certain diseases [60].
EOs have been found to act in different ways at multiple levels, and microorganisms have been found to be incapable of overcoming the antibacterial activity of EOs, unlike when they are treated with many conventional antibacterial, which have only one restricted site or mechanism of action [61,62]. Furthermore, numerous authors have demonstrated that the antibacterial activity of EOs in combination with other compounds is more effective than that of the individual constituents alone [21,63,64,65]. These combinations reduced the minimum efficient dose of an antibiotic [66].

4. Conclusions

This study found that the EO obtained from the aerial parts of A. semibaccata had antioxidant and antibacterial activities against MDR bacteria. The results also confirm that the combination of EO and gentamicin, as a classic antibiotic, has a synergistic interaction against bacterial strains, despite not having clinically relevant effects. Furthermore, this EO was found to be rich in bioactive compounds, mainly, 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol, and a naturally occurring phenolic compound with potent properties. However, future research on the chemical composition of EO of A. semibaccata should consider the potential effects of a multitude of parameters, given that it depends on geographical location, genetic factors, plant material, climate, soil, harvesting period, and method of storage and extraction. Although A. semibccata R.Br. is well adapted to arid and semi-arid climatic conditions, and the moderate antibacterial activities of its EO were demonstrated in vitro, future in vivo investigations are necessary to validate these findings, by testing the EO and the cytotoxicity of its major components at different concentrations on several cell lines to confirm its effectiveness and safety.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, H.Z. and M.I.; methodology, H.Z., M.I., S.L., S.O., and S.E.; validation, Y.O., E.G.P., and S.L.; investigation, H.Z., M.I., S.L., S.E., and S.O.; resources, H.Z., M.I., S.L., S.O., and S.E.; data curation, H.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, H.Z. and M.I.; writing—review and editing, A.O., Y.O., E.G.P., and R.H.; supervision, A.O. and R.H.; project administration, R.H. and M.E.A.; funding acquisition, R.H. and E.G.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education (MESRSFC) and the CNRST under grant number PPR/2015/64.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to E. Redouane (Ph.D. student) and R. Ait Babahmad for their contribution in the revision of this article, and K. Benrazzouk (Ph.D. student) for her valuable assistance in the protocol for essential-oil extraction.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

  1. Lewis, S.M.; Kelly, M. Mapping the potential for biofuel production on marginal lands: Differences in definitions, data and models across scales. ISPRS Int. J. Geoinf. 2014, 3, 430–459. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  2. Mirck, J.; Zalesny, R.S. Mini-review of knowledge gaps in salt tolerance of plants applied to willows and poplars. Int. J. Phytoremediation 2015, 17, 640–650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Major, J.E.; Mosseler, A.; Malcolm, J.W.; Heartz, S. Salinity tolerance of three Salix species: Survival, biomass yield and allocation, and biochemical efficiencies. Biomass Bioenergy 2017, 105, 10–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Ramakrishna, W.; Rathore, P.; Kumari, R.; Yadav, R. Brown gold of marginal soil: Plant growth promoting bacteria to overcome plant abiotic stress for agriculture, biofuels and carbon sequestration. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 711, 135062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Angelova, V.R.; Grekov, D.F.; Kisyov, V.K.; Ivanov, K.I. Potential of lavender (Lavandula vera L.) for phytoremediation of soils contaminated with heavy metals. Int. J. Agric. Biosyst. Eng. 2015, 9, 133–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Von Cossel, M.; Lewandowski, I.; Elbersen, B.; Staritsky, I.; Van Eupen, M.; Iqbal, Y.; Mantel, S.; Scordia, D.; Testa, G.; Cosentino, S.L.; et al. Marginal agricultural land low-input systems for biomass production. Energies 2019, 12, 3123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  7. Von Cossel, M.; Wagner, M.; Lask, J.; Magenau, E.; Bauerle, A.; Von Cossel, V.; Warrach-Sagi, K.; Elbersen, B.; Staritsky, I.; van Eupen, M.; et al. Prospects of bioenergy cropping systems for a more social-ecologically sound bioeconomy. Agronomy 2019, 9, 605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Fitzsimmons, K.; Lovely, C.; Glenn, E. Growth differences among widely separated geographic accessions of fourwing saltbush (Atriplex canescens) in the Great Basin Desert, New Mexico, USA. Arid Soil Res. Rehabil. 1998, 12, 87–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Chao, J.; Dai, Y.; Verpoorte, R.; Lam, W.; Cheng, Y.C.; Pao, L.H.; Zhang, W.; Chen, S. Major achievements of evidence-based traditional Chinese medicine in treating major diseases. Biochem. Pharmacol. 2017, 139, 94–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Kang, Y.M.; Komakech, R.; Karigar, C.S.; Saqib, A. Traditional Indian medicine (TIM) and traditional Korean medicine (TKM): Aconstitutional-based concept and comparison. Integr. Med. Res. 2017, 6, 105–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  11. Nimrouzi, M.; Jaladat, A.M.; Zarshenas, M.M. A panoramic view of medicinal plants traditionally applied for impotence and erectile dysfunction in Persian medicine. J. Tradit. Complement. Med. 2020, 10, 7–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Liao, X.; Bu, Y.; Jia, Q. Traditional Chinese medicine as supportive care for the management of liver cancer: Past, present, and future. Genes Dis. 2020, 7, 370–379. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Siddiqui, B.S.; Ahmed, S.; Ghiasuddin, M.; Khan, A.U. Triterpenoids of Atriplex stocksii. Phytochemistry 1994, 37, 1123–1125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ksouri, R.; Ksouri, W.M.; Jallali, I.; Debez, A.; Magné, C.; Hiroko, I.; Abdelly, C. Medicinal halophytes: Potent source of health promoting biomolecules with medical, nutraceutical and food applications. Crit. Rev. Biotechnol. 2012, 32, 289–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Coates, A.; Hu, Y.; Bax, R.; Page, C. The future challenges facing the development of new antimicrobial drugs. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2002, 1, 895–910. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Wikaningtyas, P.; Sukandar, E.Y. The antibacterial activity of selected plants towards resistant bacteria isolated from clinical specimens. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 2016, 6, 16–19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  17. Mulyaningsih, S.; Sporer, F.; Reichling, J.; Wink, M. Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Eucalyptus and of selected components against multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens. Pharm. Biol. 2011, 49, 893–899. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Ibrahimi, M.; Korichi, W.; Hafidi, M.; Lemee, L.; Ouhdouch, Y.; Loqman, S. Marine actinobacteria: Screening for predation leads to the discovery of potential new drugs against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Antibiotics 2020, 9, 91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  19. Ibrahimi, M.; Korichi, W.; Loqman, S.; Hafidi, M.; Ouhdouch, Y.; Lemee, L. Thermochemolysis—GC-MS as a tool for chemotaxonomy and predation monitoring of a predatory actinobacteria against a multidrug resistant bacteria. J. Anal. Appl. Pyrolysis 2020, 145, 104740. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Hemaiswarya, S.; Kruthiventi, A.K.; Doble, M. Synergism between natural products and antibiotics against infectious diseases. Phytomedicine 2008, 15, 639–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Ait Dra, L.; Ait Sidi Brahim, M.; Boualy, B.; Aghraz, A.; Barakate, M.; Oubaassine, S.; Markouk, M.; Larhsini, M. Chemical composition, antioxidant and evidence antimicrobial synergistic effects of Periploca laevigata essential oil with conventional antibiotics. Ind. Crops Prod. 2017, 109, 746–752. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Lal, K.; Yadav, R.K.; Kaur, R.; Bundela, D.S.; Khan, M.I.; Chaudhary, M.; Meena, R.L.; Dar, S.R.; Singh, G. Productivity, essential oil yield, and heavy metal accumulation in lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) under varied wastewater-groundwater irrigation regimes. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013, 45, 270–278. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Zheljazkov, V.D.; Craker, L.E.; Xing, B. Effects of Cd, Pb, and Cu on growth and essential oil contents in dill, peppermint, and basil. 2006; 58, 9–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group. An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 2016, 181, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  25. Heuzé, V.; Thiollet, H.; Tran, G. Creeping Saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata). Feedipedia, a Programme by INRAE, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. 2016. Available online: https://www.feedipedia.org/node/183 (accessed on 2 November 2016).
  26. Le Houérou, H.N. Le rôle d’ Atriplex spp. dans la réhabilitation des terres arides dans le bassin méditerranéen: Revue. Systèmes agroforestiers 1992, 18, 107–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Sahin, F.; Güllüce, M.; Daferera, D.; Sökmen, A.; Sökmen, M.; Polissiou, M.; Agar, G.; Özer, H. Biological activities of the essential oils and methanol extract of Origanum vulgare ssp. vulgare in the Eastern Anatolia region of Turkey. Food Control 2004, 15, 549–557. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Oyaizu, M. Studies on products of browning reactions: Antioxidative activities of product of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine. Jpn. J. Nutr. Diet. 1986, 44, 307–315. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  29. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI. Methods for Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for Bacteria That Grow Aerobically: Approved Standard; CLSI: Wayne, PA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  30. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk Susceptibility Tests: Approved Standard, 12th ed.; CLSI: Wayne, PA, USA, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  31. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI). Performances for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing: Twenty-First Informational Supplement-M 100-S21; CLSI: Wayne, PA, USA, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  32. Didry, N.; Dubreuil, L.; Pinkas, M. Microbiological properties of protoanemonin isolated from Ranunculus bulbosus. Phyther. Res. 1993, 7, 21–24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Jeong, J.B.; Jeong, H.J. 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol can induce cell cycle arrest by blocking the hyper-phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein in benzo[a]pyrene-treated NIH3T3 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2010, 400, 752–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Jeong, J.B.; Hong, S.C.; Jeong, H.J.; Koo, J.S. Anti-inflammatory effect of 2-methoxy-4-vinylphenol via the suppression of NF-κB and MAPK activation, and acetylation of histone H3. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2011, 34, 2109–2116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Rodriguez, S.A.; Murray, A.P. Antioxidant activity and chemical composition of essential oil from Atriplex undulata. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2010, 5, 1841–1844. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  36. Bylka, W.; Stobiecki, M.; Frański, R. Sulphated flavonoid glycosides from leaves of Atriplex hortensis. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2001, 23, 285–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Bylka, W. A new acylated flavonol diglycoside from Atriplex littoralis. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum 2004, 26, 393–398. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Al-Jaber, N.A.A.; Mujahid, T.G.; Al-Hazmi, H.M.G. Secondary metabolites of chenopodiaceae species. J. Chem. Soc. Pak. 1992, 14, 76–83. [Google Scholar]
  39. Awaad, A.S.; Maitland, D.J.; Donia, A.E.R.M.; Alqasoumi, S.I.; Soliman, G.A. Novel flavonoids with antioxidant activity from a Chenopodiaceous plant. Pharm. Biol. 2012, 50, 99–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. El Souda, S.S.E.D.; Matloub, A.A.; Nepveu, F.; Valentin, A.; Roques, C. Phenolic composition and prospective anti-infectious properties of Atriplex lindleyi. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 2015, 5, 786–791. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Kamal, Z.; Ullah, F.; Ayaz, M.; Sadiq, A.; Ahmad, S.; Zeb, A.; Hussain, A.; Imran, M. Anticholinesterse and antioxidant investigations of crude extracts, subsequent fractions, saponins and flavonoids of Atriplex laciniata L.: Potential effectiveness in Alzheimer’s and other neurological disorders. Biol. Res. 2015, 48, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Aissi, O.; Boussaid, M.; Messaoud, C. Essential oil composition in natural populations of Pistacia lentiscus L. from Tunisia: Effect of ecological factors and incidence on antioxidant and antiacetylcholinesterase activities. Ind. Crops Prod. 2016, 91, 56–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Benhammou, N.; Bekkara, F.A.; Kadifkova Panovska, T. Antioxidant activity of methanolic extracts and some bioactive compounds of Atriplex halimus. Comptes Rendus Chim. 2009, 12, 1259–1266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Gamal, A.S.; Donia, A.M. Antihyperglycemic, antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant effect of Atriplex farinosa and Atriplex nummularia in streptozotocin induced diabetes in rats. Bull. Environ. Pharmacol. Life Sci. 2015, 4, 10–18. [Google Scholar]
  45. Porthouse, A.; Smith, R.G.; Rogers, T. Gentamicin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 1976, 20–21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Rastogi, V.; Nirwan, P.S.; Jain, S.; Kapil, A. Nosocomial outbreak of septicaemia in neonatal intensive care unit due to extended spectrum β-lactamase producing Klebsiella pneumoniae showing multiple mechanisms of drug resistance. Indian J. Med. Microbiol. 2010, 28, 380–384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Ibrahim, D.R.; Dodd, C.E.R.; Stekel, D.J.; Ramsden, S.J.; Hobman, J.L. Multidrug resistant, extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli isolated from a dairy farm. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2016, 92, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  48. Sanchez, G.V.; Master, R.N.; Clark, R.B.; Fyyaz, M.; Duvvuri, P.; Ekta, G.; Bordon, J. Klebsiella pneumoniae antimicrobial drug resistance. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2013, 19, 133–136. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  49. Wei, J.; Wenjie, Y.; Ping, L.; Na, W.; Haixia, R.; Xuequn, Z. Antibiotic resistance of Klebsiella pneumoniae through β-arrestin recruitment-induced β-lactamase signaling pathway. Exp. Ther. Med. 2018, 15, 2247–2254. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Benzarti, M.; Rejeb, K.B.; Debez, A.; Abdelly, C. Environmental and Economical Opportunities for the Valorisation of the Genus Atriplex: New Insights; Hakeem, K.R., Ahmad, P., Ozturk, M., Eds.; Springer US: Boston, MA, USA, 2013; ISBN 978-1-4614-7027-4. [Google Scholar]
  51. Anyasor, G.; Onajobi, F.; Osilesi, O.; Adebawo, O.; Oboutor, E. Chemical constituents in n-butanol fractions of Castus afer ker Gawl leaf and stem. J. Intercult. Ethnopharmacol. 2014, 3, 78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  52. Duke, J.A. Handbook of Phytochemical Constituents of GRAS Herbs and Other Economic Plants, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 1992; p. 335. [Google Scholar]
  53. Alamri, A.; El-Newehy, M.H.; Al-Deyab, S.S. Biocidal polymers: Synthesis and antimicrobial properties of benzaldehyde derivatives immobilized onto amine-terminated polyacrylonitrile. Chem. Cent. J. 2012, 6, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  54. Cole, L.K.; Luu, D.H.; Rajala-Schultz, P.J.; Meadows, C.; Torres, A.H. In vitro activity of an ear rinse containing tromethamine, EDTA, and benzyl alcohol on bacterial pathogens from dogs with otitis. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2006, 67, 1040–1044. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Meyer, B.K.; Ni, A.; Hu, B.; Shi, L. Antimicrobial preservative use in parenteral products: Past and present. J. Pharm. Sci. 2007, 96, 3155–3167. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Friedman, M.; Henika, P.R.; Mandrell, R.E. Antibacterial activities of phenolic benzaldehydes and benzoic acids against Campylobacter jejuni, Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica. J. Food Prot. 2003, 66, 1811–1821. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Ullah, I.; Khan, A.L.; Ali, L.; Khan, A.R.; Waqas, M.; Hussain, J.; Lee, I.J.; Shin, J.H. Benzaldehyde as an insecticidal, antimicrobial, and antioxidant compound produced by Photorhabdus temperata M1021. J. Microbiol. 2015, 53, 127–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. O’Neil, M.J.; Smith, A.; Heckelman, P.E.; Budavari, S. The Merck Index—An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals; Merck and Co: Whitehouse Station, NJ, USA, 2001; Volume 767, p. 4342. [Google Scholar]
  59. Lang, G.; Buchbauer, G. A review on recent research results (2008–2010) on essential oils as antimicrobials and antifungals. A review. Flavour Fragr. J. 2012, 27, 13–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Gadisa, E. Combined antibacterial effect of essential oils from three most commonly used Ethiopian traditional medicinal plants on selected multidrug resistant bacteria. BMC Complement. Altern. Med. 2015, 4, 1–9. [Google Scholar]
  61. Yap, P.S.X.; Yiap, B.C.; Ping, H.C.; Lim, S.H.E. Essential oils, a new horizon in combating bacterial antibiotic resistance. Open Microbiol. J. 2014, 8, 6–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  62. Sienkiewicz, M.; Łysakowska, M.; Kowalczyk, E.; Szymańska, G.; Kochan, E.; Krukowska, J.; Olszewski, J.; Zielińska-Bliźniewska, H. The ability of selected plant essential oils to enhance the action of recommended antibiotics against pathogenic wound bacteria. Burns 2017, 43, 310–317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Adwan, G.M.; Abu-Shanab, B.A.; Adwan, K.M. In vitro activity of certain drugs in combination with plant extracts against Staphylococcus aureus infections. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2009, 8, 4239–4241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. De Oliveira, S.M.S.; Falcão-Silva, V.S.; Siqueira-Junior, J.P.; de Carvalho Costa, M.J.; de Melo Diniz, M.d.F.F. Modulation of drug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus by extract of mango (Mangifera indica) peel. Braz. J. Pharmacogn. 2011, 21, 190–193. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  65. Toroglu, S. In-vitro antimicrobial activity and synergistic/antagonistic effect of interactions between antibiotics and some spice essential oils. J. Environ. Biol. 2011, 32, 23–29. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  66. Aleksic, V.; Mimica-Dukic, N.; Simin, N.; Nedeljkovic, N.S.; Knezevic, P. Synergistic effect of Myrtus communis L. essential oils and conventional antibiotics against multi-drug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii wound isolates. Phytomedicine 2014, 21, 1666–1674. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Agronomy 11 00362 g001 550
Figure 1. Antibacterial activity of essential oil (EO) from Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. compared with ceftriaxone (CRO) and cefoxitin (FOX) against (a) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 12493), (b) Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218), (c) native S. aureus (ATCC 25923), and (d) Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700603) on Mueller-Hinton agar.
Figure 1. Antibacterial activity of essential oil (EO) from Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. compared with ceftriaxone (CRO) and cefoxitin (FOX) against (a) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (NCTC 12493), (b) Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218), (c) native S. aureus (ATCC 25923), and (d) Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 700603) on Mueller-Hinton agar.
Agronomy 11 00362 g001
Agronomy 11 00362 g002 550
Figure 2. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) using the microdilution method. DMSO: Dimethyl sulfoxide; MHB: Mueller-Hinton broth.
Figure 2. Determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) using the microdilution method. DMSO: Dimethyl sulfoxide; MHB: Mueller-Hinton broth.
Agronomy 11 00362 g002
Table
Table 1. Chemical composition of essential oil obtained from aerial parts of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. as determined by gas-chromatography–mass-spectrometric analysis.
Table 1. Chemical composition of essential oil obtained from aerial parts of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. as determined by gas-chromatography–mass-spectrometric analysis.
No.CompoundContent %RTRI Exp.RI Lit.
1Benzyl alcohol6.38.310401037
2Cyclohexanone0.412.3945891
33,10-Dioxatricyclo [4.3.1.0(2,4)]dec-7-ene0.67.4964964
41-Methylcycloheptanol1.510.910101009
5Cycloocta-2.5-dien-1-ol0.24.011031112
63,4-Dimethylcyclohexanol0.710.711261126
7(2-Bromoethyl)cyclohexane0.227.511761176
8Cyclohexanone, 2-(2-butynyl)-0.120.812641267
91-Cyclohexene-1-carboxaldehyde, 5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo0.112.212851285
10Bicyclo[3.1.0]hexane-6-methanol,2-hydroxy-1,4,4-trimethyl-0.214.213221330
112-Butanone, 4-(2,6,6-trimethyl-1,3-cyclohexadien-1-yl)-0.523.414241425
121,3-Heptadiene, 2,3-dimethyl0.410.2868866
132,4-Heptadienal, (E,E)-0.47.610051012
14Damascenone0.522.113381820
15Linalool oxide1.29.610671061
16Linalool0.210.610981099
17Endo-borneol0.113.111651162.6
18m-Cymen-8-ol0.613.911761182
19Safranal0.414.512121207
20Ascaridole epoxide0.218.712201234
21Cis-p-mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol0.14.812271185
22Cis-p-Mentha-1(7),8-dien-2-ol0.213.312311175
23p-Cymen-7-ol0.320.012891287
24Trans-α-ionone0.826.214221430
25Geranyl acetone0.224.914531455
26Ionone0.317.714931425.6
27Linalool oxide0.29.715131446
283-Hydroxy-β-damascone0.231.216181640
29L-Menthone0.212.711481136
30Isospathulenol1.122.216241625.6
31Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone0.439.916971833
32p-Xylene0.54.4865863.5
33o-Xylene2.14.2890882.4
34Benzaldehyde6.86.1977976
352-Nitroheptenol0.15.611271147.1
362-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol48.99.213201316.9
37Vanillin0.522.613931394
38Benzene acetaldehyde0.78.710361043
391,2-Benzenedimethanol1.915.213921385
402(4H)-Benzofuranone, 5,6,7,7a-tetrahydro-4,4,7a-trimethyl-, (R)-0.427.824662316
412,3-Pinanediol0.26.912441244
422-Decenal, (E)-0.35.312601259
432-Decen-1-ol, (E)-0.15.012681273.3
44Edulan II0.216.813281326
45Megastigmatrienone0.329.814351455
46Diethyl phthalate0.330.515901563
472H-Pyran, tetrahydro-2-(12-pentadecynyl oxy)-0.39.02245-
48Maleimide0.315.726022244
49Dihydroedulan II0.218.314961526
50Eicosatetraenoic acid, phenylmethyl ester0.17.822703003
Other compounds16.7--
Alcohol [No. 1]
Alicyclic hydrocarbons [No. 2–12]
Aliphatic hydrocarbons [No. 13]
Oxygenated monoterpene hydrocarbons [No. 14–29]
Oxygenated sesquiterpenes [No. 30–31]
Phenolic compound [No. 32–39]
Others [No. 40–50]
RT: Retention times on DB-5 column; RI exp.: Retention index relative to C9-C22 n-alkanes on DB-5 column; RI lit.: Retention indices reported in the literature taken from NIST 08.
Table
Table 2. Antioxidant activity of essential oil (EO) from aerial parts of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br by three different assays.
Table 2. Antioxidant activity of essential oil (EO) from aerial parts of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br by three different assays.
DPPH
IC50 (μg/mL)μg TE/g EOReducing Power (IC50, μg/mL)
EO450 ± 3.39938.65 ± 9.6884 ± 2.5
BHT4.21 ± 0.08---7.09 ± 0.1
Quercetin1.07 ± 0.01---2.29 ± 0.1
BHT: Butylated hydroxytoluene; DPPH: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl; IC50: concentration providing 50% inhibition; TE: Trolox equivalent. Values represent the average ± standard deviations for triplicate analyses.
Table
Table 3. Antibacterial activity of essential oil from Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. and antibiotics using the disc-diffusion method.
Table 3. Antibacterial activity of essential oil from Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. and antibiotics using the disc-diffusion method.
Diameter of Inhibition Zone (mm)
MicroorganismDesignated Strain CodeEssential Oil (10 μL/disc)Cefoxitin (30 μg/disc)Ceftriaxone (30 μg/disc)Gentamicin (15 μg/disc)
NativeStaphylococcus aureusATCC 2592320.66 ±0.5732 ± 0NT28 ± 1
Klebsiella pneumoniaeATCC 3565715 ± 1NT26 ± 1NI
Escherichia coliATCC 2592215.33 ± 0.57NT27 ± 024.3 ± 0.4
Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureusNCTC 1249311.16 ± 0.76NINTNI
MDRKlebsiella pneumoniaeATCC 70060311.73 ± 0.64NTNINI
Escherichia coliATCC 3521812 ± 0.45NTNINI
ATCC: American Type Culture Collection; NCTC: National Collection of Type Cultures (Public Health England); NI: No inhibition, NT: not tested; MDR: multidrug-resistant. Diameter of inhibition zone includes the disc diameter (6 mm). Values are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation.
Table
Table 4. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) for the antibiotic gentamicin and Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. essential oil against different strains of pathogenic bacteria.
Table 4. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) for the antibiotic gentamicin and Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. essential oil against different strains of pathogenic bacteria.
Essential OilGentamicin
MicroorganismDesignated Strain CodeMIC (mg/mL)MBC (mg/mL)MIC (mg/mL)MBC (mg/mL)
NativeStaphylococcus aureusATCC 259233.123.120.010.01
Klebsiella pneumoniaeATCC 356573.123.120.040.04
Escherichia coliATCC 259223.123.120.020.02
Methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureusNCTC 124936.256.25--
MDRKlebsiella pneumoniaeATCC 7006036.256.25--
Escherichia coliATCC 352183.126.25--
ATCC: American Type Culture Collection; NCTC: National Collection of Type Cultures (Public Health England); MDR: multidrug-resistant; (-): inactive.
Table
Table 5. Synergistic interaction between Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. essential oil and the antibiotic gentamicin against selected pathogenic bacteria.
Table 5. Synergistic interaction between Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. essential oil and the antibiotic gentamicin against selected pathogenic bacteria.
MicroorganismDesignated Strain CodeFICIGain
NativeStaphylococcus aureusATCC 259230.39 a4
Klebsiella pneumoniaeATCC 356570.27 a4
Escherichia coliATCC 259221.33 b3.33
ATCC: American Type Culture Collection; FICI: fractional inhibitory concentration index. a Complete synergism; b no effect. Gain: The ratio of the minimal inhibitory concentration for gentamicin alone to that for gentamicin in combination with essential oil.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Zine, H.; Ibrahimi, M.; Loqman, S.; Papazoglou, E.G.; Ouhaddou, S.; Elgadi, S.; Ouhdouch, Y.; Hakkou, R.; Adnani, M.E.; Ouhammou, A. Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oil of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. Aerial Parts: First Assessment against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Agronomy 2021, 11, 362. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020362

AMA Style

Zine H, Ibrahimi M, Loqman S, Papazoglou EG, Ouhaddou S, Elgadi S, Ouhdouch Y, Hakkou R, Adnani ME, Ouhammou A. Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oil of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. Aerial Parts: First Assessment against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Agronomy. 2021; 11(2):362. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020362

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zine, Hamza, Manar Ibrahimi, Souad Loqman, Eleni G. Papazoglou, Soukaina Ouhaddou, Sara Elgadi, Yedir Ouhdouch, Rachid Hakkou, Mariam El Adnani, and Ahmed Ouhammou. 2021. "Chemical Composition, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oil of Atriplex semibaccata R.Br. Aerial Parts: First Assessment against Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria" Agronomy 11, no. 2: 362. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11020362

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop