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Article

Predation Efficiency and Biological Control Potential of Micromus angulatus Against Aphis craccivora

by
Yang Zhao
1,*,
Tiancheng Lou
1,
Rongxiang Cao
1,
Liben Jiang
1,
Qiujing Xu
1 and
Qingbin Zhan
2,3,*
1
Research Institute of Pomology, Nanjing Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Hilly Area, Nanjing 210014, China
2
Department of Criminal Science and Technology, Nanjing Police University, Nanjing 210023, China
3
Key Laboratory of State Forestry and Grassland Administration on Wildlife Evidence Technology, Nanjing 210023, China
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agronomy 2024, 14(10), 2242; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102242
Submission received: 24 August 2024 / Revised: 26 September 2024 / Accepted: 27 September 2024 / Published: 28 September 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biological Pest Control in Agroecosystems)
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Abstract

:
Micromus angulatus (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) is a widely distributed and highly effective predator that shows promise as a biological control agent against agricultural pests, particularly Aphis craccivora, the cowpea aphid, which threatens leguminous crops globally. This study aimed to evaluate the predation behaviour, search efficiency, and intraspecific interference of M. angulatus at different developmental stages, including first- to third-instar larvae and adults, in controlling adult A. craccivora populations. The results demonstrated that all developmental stages of M. angulatus exhibited predatory behaviour towards adult aphids, with the functional response fitting the Holling Type II model. The instantaneous attack rates for first-, second-, and third-instar larvae and adults were 1.0017, 1.0448, 0.9581, and 0.9508, respectively; the handling times were 0.0158, 0.0051, 0.0016, and 0.0011 days, respectively; and the theoretical maximum daily predation rates were 63.2911, 196.0784, 625, and 909.0909 aphids, respectively. The pest control efficacies were 63.3989, 204.8672, 598.8311, and 864.3192, respectively. The search efficiency at each developmental stage was negatively correlated with aphid density, which decreased as the prey density increased, with second-instar larvae showing the greatest decrease and adults the least. When the aphid density was fixed, the daily predation rate of individual M. angulatus decreased with increasing conspecific density, indicating that predation was affected by its own density, with the interference effect equation being E = 0.6194P−0.87. These findings indicate that M. angulatus, especially in the third-instar larval and adult stages, has considerable potential as a biological control agent for managing A. craccivora populations in agricultural settings. This study contributes valuable insights for developing sustainable agricultural practices by decreasing reliance on chemical pesticides.

1. Introduction

The cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora Koch, 1854, also known as the alfalfa aphid, is a pest in the order Hemiptera, family Aphididae, with a broad geographic distribution. This aphid is characterised by its rapid reproductive rate and extensive host range and affects more than 200 plant species, including important leguminous crops such as cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [Linnaeus, 1753]), broad bean (Vicia faba Linnaeus, 1753), alfalfa (Medicago sativa Linnaeus, 1753), peanut (Arachis hypogaea Linnaeus, 1753), and pea (Pisum sativum Linnaeus, 1753) [1]. Both the adult and nymph stages of aphids feed by piercing the tender leaves and shoots of plants, leading to leaf curling and wilting. This feeding activity significantly disrupts photosynthesis, thereby inhibiting plant growth and reducing yield. Moreover, A. craccivora is a vector for several plant viruses, including bean leaf roll virus (BLRV) and faba bean necrotic yellow spot virus (FBNYSV). These viruses pose severe threats to the yield and quality of leguminous crops [2,3,4]. Given the extensive damage caused by this pest, effective control measures are crucial.
Traditionally, the control of Aphis craccivora has heavily relied on chemical pesticides. However, prolonged dependence on chemical pesticides not only poses a risk of environmental pollution but can also lead to the development of resistance to these chemicals, thereby compromising crop food safety. Furthermore, the use of chemical pesticides may negatively impact non-target organisms, including the death of beneficial insects and the disruption of ecosystem functions [5]. These issues have prompted the exploration of alternative pest management strategies that are more environmentally friendly and efficient. Biological control, as a sustainable pest management strategy, leverages natural enemies such as predatory insects, parasitic insects, and pathogens to effectively manage pest populations and reduce reliance on chemical pesticides [6]. This approach not only helps protect the environment and reduce pesticide residues but also prevents the development of pest resistance, thereby promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
In biological control research, lacewings (Neuroptera: Hemerobiidae) have received significant attention as an important group of natural enemies. Among them, the brown lacewing (Micromus angulatus [Stephens, 1836]) is a predatory insect of considerable economic value. Both the adults and larvae of M. angulatus effectively prey on various pests, including the strawberry aphid (Chaetosiphon fragaefolii [Cockerell, 1905]) in strawberries and the peach aphid (Myzus persicae [Sulzer, 1776]) in sweet peppers, demonstrating notable efficacy in controlling these pests [7,8]. M. angulatus is characterised by its robust predatory ability and wide adaptability and performs well under various climatic conditions [9]. However, despite its demonstrated effectiveness in multiple crops, its potential for controlling Aphis craccivora has not been thoroughly explored. The biological characteristics of this insect, the optimal developmental stages for release, and its performance in practical applications still require systematic research and validation [10].
Current research indicates that Micromus angulatus has substantial potential in biological control applications. Studies have shown that releasing first-instar larvae or female adults of M. angulatus can effectively control peach aphids (Myzus persicae) on sweet peppers within two weeks [9]. Additionally, M. angulatus exhibits a favourable predatory ability against various important agricultural pests, including the effective control of strawberry aphids (Chaetosiphon fragaefolii) [7]. Despite promising results for controlling different aphid species, its predatory function and control efficacy against Aphis craccivora have not been extensively studied. For example, it remains unclear which developmental stage of M. angulatus is most suitable for release to combat aphids. This differs from green lacewings, such as Chrysoperla carnea (Stephens, 1836), which are typically provided to end-users as second-instar larvae or eggs [11,12].
Therefore, this study aims to systematically evaluate the predatory ability of Micromus angulatus at different stages of its life cycle (first- to third-instar larvae and adults) against Aphis craccivora. This research explores the potential of M. angulatus as a biological control agent for leguminous crops. Detailed assessments will be conducted through greenhouse experiments to analyse the predatory behaviour, searching efficiency, and intraspecific interference of M. angulatus. These studies are intended to provide practical strategies for the biological control of A. craccivora and offer theoretical support and practical guidance for the biological control of other agricultural pests.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials Collection and Preparation

Vicia faba Linnaeus, 1753 was used as the host plant. Faba bean seeds were soaked one day before planting and then sown in mixed soil containing vermiculite and substrate soil (potted). After the faba bean seedlings reached 3–4 cm, each plant was inoculated with 3–5 aphids. After 10–15 days, each faba bean seedling could breed over 100 aphids, which were then used to feed M. angulatus in an artificial climate chamber at 25 ± 1 °C, 60 ± 5% relative humidity, and a light cycle of L:D = 14:10.
Adult samples of brown lacewing (M. angulatus) were collected from Corylus mandshurica Maximowicz, 1859 in Xianghetun, Gaojiadian Town, Xifeng County, Liaoning Province (42°67′13″ N, 124°45′92″ E). Both the larval and adult stages of the predator were maintained on a diet of cowpea aphids under controlled conditions as previously described. Detailed observations of moulting frequency and morphological characteristics allowed for the identification and differentiation of the 1st-, 2nd-, and 3rd-instar larvae (Figure 1), as well as the adult stage [13].
The following instruments were used during the experiments: SZ680 stereomicroscope, Chongqing Optech Company (Chongqing, China); and RXZ-436-type artificial climate chamber, Ningbo Jiangnan Instrument Factory (Ningbo, China).

2.2. Predation Rate Measurement of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora

On the basis of preliminary experimental results, after 24 h of exposing the cowpea aphids to brown lacewings, 1st-instar larvae were starved for 12 h, while 2nd- and 3rd-instar larvae as well as adults were starved for 24 h. Each lacewing sample was then individually placed in a Petri dish (9 cm diameter and 2 cm high). Fresh 3 cm long faba bean sprouts were added to each dish, followed by the introduction of adult cowpea aphids at the required densities. The densities for the 1st-instar larvae were 10, 20, 30, 50, and 70 aphids/dish, and for the 2nd- and 3rd-instar larvae and adults, the densities were 20, 30, 50, 70, 100, and 120 aphids/dish. The dishes were sealed with cling film punched with small holes for ventilation and incubated in an artificial climate chamber at 25 ± 1 °C, 60% ± 5% relative humidity, and a light cycle of 14 L:10 D. After 24 h, the number of surviving aphids in each dish was counted, and the predation rate of M. angulatus was calculated. Each treatment was repeated six times, with a control group that contained only cowpea aphids at equivalent densities, and the natural mortality in the control group was used for correction [14].

2.3. Functional Response of Micromus angulatus to Aphis craccivora

On the basis of preliminary experimental results, the functional response of M. angulatus to adult cowpea aphids across different instars can be modelled via the Holling Type II model, with the equation Na = aN0T/(1 + aThN0) [15], where Na is the number of aphids consumed by M. angulatus; a is the instantaneous attack rate of M. angulatus on cowpea aphids; N0 is the initial aphid density; T is the total experimental time, in this case, 1 day; Th is the handling time, i.e., the time taken by M. angulatus to consume one aphid; 1/Th is the maximum daily predation rate of M. angulatus; and a/Th is its control efficacy, which can be used to measure the predatory capacity of M. angulatus on cowpea aphids. The model equation was transformed via the reciprocal method to 1/Na = 1/aTN0 + Th/T, and the corresponding parameters were calculated via the least squares method. To evaluate the deviation between the measured and theoretical predation rates of M. angulatus, a chi-square goodness-of-fit test was conducted [16].

2.4. Searching Efficiency of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora

The search efficiency of M. angulatus across different instars on adult cowpea aphids was analysed via the equation S = a/(1 + aThN0) [17], where S is the search efficiency and a, N0, and Th are the same as those in the Holling Type II model.

2.5. Effects of Micromus angulatus Density on Predatory Activity

In a Petri dish, 200 adult cowpea aphids and a 3 cm long fresh faba bean sprout were placed. The density of the 3rd-instar larvae of M. angulatus after 24 h of starvation was set at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 individuals/dish across the five treatments. Each treatment was replicated five times, and the dishes were sealed with cling film punched with small holes for ventilation and then incubated in an artificial climate chamber under the same conditions as above. After 24 h, the number of remaining aphids in each dish was counted to calculate the predation rate of 3rd-instar larvae of M. angulatus and to analyse the predation rate relative to intraspecific interference. The interference effect model was used for fitting, with the equation E = QP−m, where E is the average predation rate calculated via the formula E = Na/N0P; P is the density of predators in a given space; Q is the searching constant; and m is the interference coefficient [18]. The competitive interference intensity I of M. angulatus was calculated via the formula I = (E1 − EP)/E1 [19], where E1 is the predation rate when only one M. angulatus is present, and EP is the predation rate when M. angulatus individuals coexist. Following Section 2.3, a chi-square goodness-of-fit test for the predation rate of a single M. angulatus was conducted, and the linear relationship of the interference effect equation was tested to determine the correlation between the density of M. angulatus and its average daily predation rate.

3. Results

3.1. Predation Rate Measurement of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora

The first-, second-, and third-instar larvae and adults of M. angulatus exhibited predation on adult Aphis craccivora. Under the prey densities used in the experiment, the daily predation rates increased with increasing aphid density, but the rate of increase gradually slowed. First-instar larvae had the highest predation rate at a density of 70 aphids per dish, as it consumed 43 aphids; second- and third-instar larvae and adults had the highest predation rate at a density of 120 aphids per dish, as they consumed 85, 104, and 103 aphids, respectively (Table 1) (Figure 2). This finding indicates that the predatory capacity of older instar larvae and adults of M. angulatus is significantly greater than that of first-instar larvae, with third-instar larvae showing predatory capabilities similar to those of adults.

3.2. Functional Response of Micromus angulatus to Aphis craccivora

The functional response equations of the first-, second-, and third-instar larvae and adults of M. angulatus preying on adult Aphis craccivora were fitted via the Holling Type II disc equation (Table 2), and the R-squared values were 0.9319, 0.9941, 0.9938, and 0.9936, respectively. The chi-square goodness-of-fit tests between the actual and theoretical predation rates revealed chi-square values that were less than the critical value of X20.05 = 7.81, indicating that there was no significant difference between the observed and theoretical values. These findings confirm that the functional response equations accurately reflect the actual predation behaviour of M. angulatus on adult Aphis craccivora.
The instantaneous attack rates of first-, second-, and third-instar larvae and the adults of M. angulatus were 1.0017, 1.0448, 0.9581, and 0.9508, respectively. The handling times were 0.0158, 0.0051, 0.0016, and 0.0011 days, respectively. The maximum daily predation rates were 63.2911, 196.0784, 625, and 909.0909 aphids, respectively. The control efficiencies were calculated as 63.3989, 204.8672, 598.8311, and 864.3192, respectively (Table 2). The experiments indicate that the adults and third-instar larvae of M. angulatus exhibit significantly greater control efficiency against adult A. craccivora than first- and second-instar larvae do. This is due to their shorter handling times, which contribute to higher control efficiencies. Adults and third-instar larvae thus play substantial roles in controlling aphid populations. The second-instar larvae had slightly weaker predation abilities, whereas the first-instar larvae had the least control ability over adult A. craccivora.

3.3. Searching Efficiency of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora

The search efficiency of Micromus angulatus at different instars for adult Aphis craccivora decreased as the prey density increased, indicating that the difficulty and time required for searching decreased with increasing prey density. When the density of adult A. craccivora was 10 aphids per dish, the search efficiency of first-instar larvae reached its peak at 0.87, with a noticeable decline as the aphid density increased. At a density of 20 aphids per dish, the search efficiency of second- and third-instar larvae peaked at 0.94 and 0.93, respectively. When the aphid density reached 30 aphids per dish, the search efficiency remained above 0.9, at 0.90 and 0.92, respectively, but subsequently declined significantly with increasing aphid density, with a more pronounced decline observed in second-instar larvae than in third-instar larvae. The highest search efficiency for adult M. angulatus was 0.9321 at an aphid density of 20 aphids per dish, and the lowest was 0.8489 at a density of 120 aphids per dish, indicating a decreasing trend (Figure 3).

3.4. Effects of Micromus angulatus Density on Predatory Activity

Under constant prey density and predation space, the total predation by the third-instar larvae of M. angulatus increased with the increasing density of M. angulatus larvae, but the average daily predation per individual decreased from 123 to 31.48 aphids (Table 3). This finding indicates the presence of intraspecific interference and competition among individual third-instar larvae during predation. The interference effect model was fitted with a search constant Q = 0.6194 and an interference coefficient m = 0.87, resulting in the interference effect equation E = 0.6194P−0.87. A chi-square goodness-of-fit test yielded X2 = 1.11, which is less than X20.05 = 7.81, suggesting that the difference between the actual and theoretical predation rates is not significant. The interference effect equation adequately reflects the interference effect on M. angulatus density, indicating a significant correlation between the density of M. angulatus and its average daily predation. The competitive interference intensity reached its maximum value of 0.744 when the density of third-instar larvae was five per dish (Table 3), indicating that the interference and competition among M. angulatus larvae were the greatest at this density.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study demonstrate the significant potential of Micromus angulatus as a biological control agent against Aphis craccivora. The predatory behaviour, functional responses, search efficiency, and intraspecific interference exhibited by different developmental stages of M. angulatus are vital in understanding its potential efficacy in biological control programs. The results of this study are consistent with earlier research on lacewings and other predatory insects, providing valuable insights into the utility of M. angulatus in integrated pest management strategies [7,8,9,11,14].
The functional response of a predator is a critical component in understanding its efficacy in biological control, as it provides insights into how a predator’s consumption rate changes with prey density [20,21]. Understanding the impact of predatory natural enemies on pest control is essential for maximising their control effectiveness. The Holling Type II functional response is a critical method for evaluating the pest control ability of predatory natural enemies and is widely used to assess predation efficiency and the ability of predators to control prey populations [20,21,22]. Our findings show that the functional responses of first- to third-instar larvae and adults of M. angulatus to adult Aphis craccivora fit the Holling II model. This finding is consistent with other predatory insects within the Neuroptera order, such as the predation of aphids and thrips by green lacewing [23,24,25]. Lady beetles’ functional responses to cowpea aphids also follow the Holling II model [26]. Overall, the theoretical maximum daily predation rates of third-instar larvae and adults of M. angulatus on adult cowpea aphids are significantly higher than those of the first- and second-instars, with 625 and 909.0909 aphids, respectively. The search effect, a behavioural response exhibited by predators during predation, decreases as the prey density increases, allowing predators to complete predation more swiftly [27]. The search effect demonstrated by all instars of M. angulatus on adult cowpea aphids shows a continuous decline as the aphid density increases, a pattern also observed in other predators, such as lady beetles [28,29] and green lacewings [30]. The decline in the search effect is most pronounced in first-instar larvae, with the least decline observed in third-instar larvae and adults, suggesting their lesser susceptibility to changes in aphid density. When the density of adult cowpea aphids was 120 per dish, the search effect of third-instar larvae and adults was notably greater than that of other stages. Thus, when cowpea aphids are controlled with M. angulatus, it is advisable to utilise third-instar larvae and adults. Extensive laboratory studies have shown that, as the predator density increases, intraspecific interference occurs, leading to a decrease in predation effectiveness—a phenomenon known as intraspecific interference [31]. Such interference has been observed in various predators, including lady beetles preying on aphid nymphs and green lacewings on citrus psyllids [19]. This study confirms that intraspecific interference also occurs when M. angulatus preys on adult cowpea aphids. As the density of third-instar larvae increases within a constant prey density and predation space, the average daily predation per larva continuously decreases, reaching a maximum interference value of 0.74407 at a density of five per dish. Therefore, when M. angulatus is released in fields to control cowpea aphids, it is crucial to consider the pest population density and the intraspecific interference effects of M. angulatus, protect and utilise natural field populations, and release the appropriate numbers of natural enemies on the basis of field conditions for effective pest management.
By studying the predation rates, functional responses, search effects, and effects of the intraspecific interference of third-instar larvae of M. angulatus, this study confirmed that all instars of M. angulatus, especially third-instar larvae and adults, are effective in controlling cowpea aphids. While the release of third-instar larvae or adults in fields is recommended to control aphids, the natural field environment is more complex than the laboratory conditions. Predator behaviour is influenced by multiple biotic factors, such as climate conditions, predator sex, crop type, and abiotic factors. Therefore, future studies should focus on the overwintering of M. angulatus, artificial rearing techniques, field population dynamics, and the relationship between predator and pest densities to address the lag effect of natural enemies and the coordination of insecticide use with biological control strategies involving M. angulatus.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that under laboratory conditions, Micromus angulatus is a highly effective predator of Aphis craccivora, with significant potential for use in biological control programs. The predation efficiency, functional response, search efficiency, and intraspecific interference observed in this study provide a comprehensive understanding of the predatory behaviour of M. angulatus. The results support the use of third-instar larvae and adults as the most effective stages for field release. These findings will offer new perspectives for environmentally friendly pest management and contribute to the advancement of sustainable agriculture.
However, while laboratory results are promising, the influence of environmental factors, such as temperature, humidity, and the availability of alternate prey may affect the predation capacity of M. angulatus under field conditions. Moreover, variations in crop type, field structure, and seasonal dynamics could impact the predator’s effectiveness. Therefore, future research should focus on assessing the field efficacy of M. angulatus under diverse environmental conditions to better understand its role in real-world integrated pest management (IPM) programs. Additionally, the mass rearing of M. angulatus poses another critical area for investigation. Developing efficient, cost-effective methods for producing large quantities of third-instar larvae and adults is essential for scaling up biological control operations. Moreover, exploring the predator’s interactions with other natural enemies and its compatibility with various pest control methods, such as the selective use of insecticides, will ensure the successful integration of M. angulatus into broader IPM strategies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, Y.Z. and Q.Z.; methodology, Y.Z. and T.L.; formal analysis, T.L. and R.C.; investigation, L.J. and Q.X.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z., L.J. and Q.Z.; writing—review and editing, Y.Z., L.J., R.C. and Q.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities under Grant [LGZD202405]; the National Natural Science Foundation of China under Grant No. 32100366]; and Key Discipline Construction in Jiangsu Province during the 14th Five Year Plan (Su Jiao Yan Han [2022] No. 2).

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, and further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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Agronomy 14 02242 g001
Figure 1. Predation by different developmental stages of brown lacewing: (a) 1st-instar larva; (b) 2nd-instar larva; and (c) 3rd-instar larva.
Figure 1. Predation by different developmental stages of brown lacewing: (a) 1st-instar larva; (b) 2nd-instar larva; and (c) 3rd-instar larva.
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Agronomy 14 02242 g002
Figure 2. Predation efficiency distribution of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora.
Figure 2. Predation efficiency distribution of Micromus angulatus on Aphis craccivora.
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Figure 3. Searching efficiency of Micromus angulatus at different stages for adults of Aphis craccivora.
Figure 3. Searching efficiency of Micromus angulatus at different stages for adults of Aphis craccivora.
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Table 1. Consumption of Micromus angulatus 1st- to 3rd-instar larvae and adults by Aphis craccivora.
Table 1. Consumption of Micromus angulatus 1st- to 3rd-instar larvae and adults by Aphis craccivora.
1st-Instar2nd-Instar3rd-InstarAdult
Number of Hosts (N0)Number of Preyed Hosts (Na) ± SDNumber of Hosts (N0)Number of Preyed Hosts (Na) ± SDNumber of Hosts (N0)Number of Preyed Hosts (Na) ± SDNumber of Hosts (N0)Number of Preyed Hosts (Na) ± SD
2020.00 ± 0.002020.00 ± 0.002020.00 ± 0.00
109.17 ± 1.333030.00 ± 0.003029.83 ± 0.413030.00 ± 0.00
2013.33 ± 2.665048.17 ± 1.725050.00 ± 0.005049.83 ± 0.41
3023.50 ± 2.357053.83 ± 8.957061.50 ± 8.147069.17 ± 0.75
5036.17 ± 3.7610072.17 ± 9.6810094.67 ± 2.7310094.33 ± 2.58
7042.67 ± 2.6612084.50 ± 6.95120103.83 ± 6.68120102.50 ± 7.28
Table 2. Functional responses of Micromus angulatus to adult Aphis craccivora.
Table 2. Functional responses of Micromus angulatus to adult Aphis craccivora.
StageFunctional Response
Equation		R2Instant Attack Rate (a)Handling Time (Th)/dPredation Capacity (a/Th)Maximum Daily Consumption
(1/Th)		X2
1st-instarNa = 0.9983N0/(1 + 0.0158N0)0.93191.00170.015863.398963.29115.8093
2nd-instarNa = 0.9571N0/(1 + 0.0053N0)0.99411.04480.0051204.8672196.07842.636
3rd-instarNa = 1.0437N0/(1 + 0.0015N0)0.99380.95810.0016598.83116253.0853
AdultNa = 1.0518N0/(1 + 0.0010N0)0.99360.95080.0011864.3192909.09092.4112
Table 3. Interference effects of different densities of Micromus angulatus on the predation of adult Aphis craccivora.
Table 3. Interference effects of different densities of Micromus angulatus on the predation of adult Aphis craccivora.
Density of M. angulatus (Individuals/Disk)Number of Preyed Hosts (Na)Average Number of Preyed HostsTheoretical Number of Consumed PreysX2Intensity of Scramble Competition
1123.00 ± 6.708123.00 ± 6.708123.8880.0060
2123.00 ± 6.70861.50 ± 3.354135.890.0010.446
3150.60 ± 14.67350.20 ± 4.891143.4430.3570.592
4139.20 ± 5.63034.80 ± 1.408149.0540.6510.717
5157.40 ± 10.78431.48 ± 2.517153.5580.0960.744
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Zhao, Y.; Lou, T.; Cao, R.; Jiang, L.; Xu, Q.; Zhan, Q. Predation Efficiency and Biological Control Potential of Micromus angulatus Against Aphis craccivora. Agronomy 2024, 14, 2242. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102242

AMA Style

Zhao Y, Lou T, Cao R, Jiang L, Xu Q, Zhan Q. Predation Efficiency and Biological Control Potential of Micromus angulatus Against Aphis craccivora. Agronomy. 2024; 14(10):2242. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102242

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhao, Yang, Tiancheng Lou, Rongxiang Cao, Liben Jiang, Qiujing Xu, and Qingbin Zhan. 2024. "Predation Efficiency and Biological Control Potential of Micromus angulatus Against Aphis craccivora" Agronomy 14, no. 10: 2242. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102242

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