The Current State of Italian Pomegranate Production: Agronomic, Crop Protection, Economic, and Managerial Perspectives

Abstract

Pomegranate cultivation has gained interest in Italy, driven by the tree’s drought tolerance and temperature requirements, which make it a suitable alternative crop for farmers transitioning from traditional options like olives, cereals, or vineyards. Despite its increasing popularity, particularly in Southern Italy, fragmented knowledge of this crop hinders its diffusion. This review addresses these gaps by synthesizing knowledge across agronomy, crop protection, economics, and managerial aspects. Also, the current review identifies challenges and opportunities for pomegranate farmers. It offers insights into different irrigation, fertilization, and training systems and different soil management strategies by identifying suitable cultivars according to the market outcome. Furthermore, this review examines the main biotic threats, such as the fungal diseases affecting this crop all over the world and in Italy. Moreover, the work explores the extent to which abiotic factors like drought, salinity, and extreme temperatures are responsible for fruit injuries and reduced marketability. Lastly, this review collects market figures on pomegranate production by identifying challenges that undermine market development and discusses managerial strategies to increase the profitability of this crop while avoiding price competition from non-European countries. Therefore, this detailed review, combining knowledge from multiple disciplines, will support the Italian pomegranate sector’s growth, ensuring farmers’ long-term profitability and environmental sustainability according to the EU’s Farm to Fork strategy.

1. Introduction

Farmers’ incomes are jeopardized by a mix of several factors, such as unpredictable weather, abiotic and biotic factors, policy changes, price fluctuations, and rising input costs [1]. The level and stability of farm income are crucial for farm businesses, significantly influencing farmers’ decisions and the sustainability of farm operations [2]. Stabilizing farm income is therefore essential for ensuring economic viability and guaranteeing adequate food production to meet the demands of a growing population [3]. A farm strategy that supports farmers in reducing the risk of income losses due to the unpredictable factors reported above is crop diversification. This strategy entails the cultivation of multiple crop varieties rather than relying on a single crop (polyculture vs. monoculture). By adopting crop diversification, farmers reduce their dependence on the success of a single crop, which may be susceptible to specific pathogens, diseases, or extreme weather events. As a result, crop diversification is a key farming strategy for enhancing economic resilience to shocks and supporting farm income stability [4,5]. Empirical studies have documented the positive correlation between crop diversification and income stability in regions such as Switzerland [6] and Argentina [7]. Furthermore, crop diversification is highly beneficial for small farmers, who lack economies of scale [6,8]. Moreover, crop diversification can enhance soil health and fertility by reducing the depletion of specific nutrients associated with monoculture by contributing to more sustainable farming practices, ensuring long-term soil fertility and productivity [9].

In the past decade, a rising share of Italian farmers have widely adopted the crop diversification strategy to stabilize their income [10], increasing the area of pomegranate cultivation (Punica granatum L.), especially in the Apulia region (Southern Italy) [11], as pomegranate is a drought-tolerant crop and requires high summer temperatures to ripen properly. Thus, pomegranate orchards have been introduced on farms that traditionally grew olives or cereals or that operated as vineyards [11]. However, despite the significant share of land given over to pomegranate cultivation, current knowledge about its agronomic practices, crop protection strategies, and economic and managerial aspects is fragmented across studies from multiple disciplines. This fragmentation potentially hinders the further diffusion and development of pomegranate cultivation, despite farmers’ interest in this crop. This review aims to address this gap by providing a comprehensive synthesis of the fragmented knowledge on pomegranate cultivation and production from multiple disciplines, including agronomy, crop protection, and economics. It identifies the key challenges associated with pomegranate cultivation and production and proposes potential solutions. These solutions include a discussion on innovative agronomic practices, sustainable crop protection means, and economic and managerial strategies according to the Farm to Fork (F2F) strategy, aimed at improving the environmental, social, and economic performance of pomegranate cultivation.

2. Agronomic and Crop Protection of Pomegranate Cultivation and Production

2.1. Agronomic Aspects

2.1.1. Cultivars, Planting, and Pruning

The pomegranate (P. granatum), native to Iran and Central Asia, is one of the oldest known edible fruits, having been domesticated around 5000 years ago, and it is widely cultivated in the Mediterranean region [12,13,14]. Pomegranate belongs to the Punicaceae family, and its fruits are rich in polyphenols, which have antibacterial and anti-inflammatory properties, making it a key component of traditional Asian medicines (e.g., pomegranate consumption alleviates stomachaches, diarrhea, and respiratory illnesses [15,16]). In the past decade, new pomegranate orchards have been established across several European countries; among these, Spain and Italy are the main pomegranate producers [17]. The most commercially important cultivar in Italy is ‘Wonderful’, originally from Florida, which ripens in late October. It produces large fruits with seeded arils, making it more suitable for juice processing than for fresh consumption. Less widespread cultivars in Italy include ‘Acco’, which ripens between August and September, as well as ‘Jolly Red’ and ‘Mollar de Elche’, both of which ripen in early October. These cultivars produce smaller fruits with sweet, soft-seeded arils, making them more appropriate for fresh consumption. Lastly, ‘Dente di Cavallo’, an Italian cultivar, along with local ecotypes, ripens in early October and produces medium-sized fruits with sweet arils suitable for both fresh consumption and juice production [18,19]. The optimal harvesting time is determined using a harvest maturity index, which measures the sugar and acid content of the arils; as well, the fruit color is evaluated using the Munsell color chart [20]. For the ‘Wonderful’ cultivar, for instance, optimal harvesting is associated with an acid content of less than 1.85%, a soluble sugar content exceeding 16–17%, and a sugar/acid ratio greater than 18.5%. However, harvest maturity indices for cultivars other than ‘Wonderful’ are not currently available. The Munsell color chart has been utilized to determine the color score of the fruit’s skin, although it is important to note that skin color values can vary seasonally. Therefore, skin color should be used in association with other maturity tests to ensure accurate assessment [20].

Pomegranate cultivars are commonly propagated by cuttings, using one- or two-year-old branches possibly treated with rhizogenic hormones, or propagated by micropropagation. For the planting of new orchards that are able to produce in the second year, pomegranate trees require a Y-shaped transversal supporting structure with horizontal wires supported by pilings, according to the Israeli pomegranate farming system [21] (Figure 1a). The Y-shaped structure has from 6 to 12 main branches arranged like an inverted umbrella on the trunk, with the foliage formed by tying the branches onto the horizontal wires. This guarantees good fruit shading, preventing burns and facilitating harvesting. The optimal planting layout is 6 m × 3.5 m but can vary to 6 m × 3 m or 5 m × 3 m or 5 m × 2.5 m, corresponding to approximately 476, 555, 665, and 800 trees per ha, respectively. The planting layout depends on the cultivar, soil, and farmers’ preferences [21]. Rows should be preferably oriented north–south, with plants positioned on raised cultivation beds created by moving soil from the side aisles to the center line (soil-mound formation). This technique, known as “ridge” (Figure 1b,c), clearly separates the cultivation area from the water passage and drainage zones, promoting root capillary development. The rows are mulched with reflective plastic sheets (Figure 1b,c), which improves fruit coloring and plant vigor, optimizes the water and nutrient supply, reduces soil cracking, improves oxygenation, enhances soil warming, controls excess salinity, and prevents waterlogging in no-clay soil [21].

However, the effectiveness of mulching for pomegranates is debatable: concerns are particularly relevant in clayey soils, where waterlogging creates an ideal habitat for fungal pathogens, such as Coniella granati, which causes crown rot. Alternative pomegranate training systems include the “globular shape” and “vase shape”. These systems do not require supporting structures and are similar to those used for peach trees. However, the choice of training system depends on factors such as the cultivar, climate, soil conditions, and farm management decisions [21].

Also, pomegranate trees require annual pruning, usually in the winter, to remove secondary branches and to prevent overcrowding, as well as to remove suckers at the base of the tree. In early spring, green pruning could be adopted to eliminate excess foliage and pomegranate suckers, as well as to stimulate fruiting by shortening some lateral branches. Lastly, during the summer months (June to July), manual thinning and removal of young fruits and red flowers are undertaken to prompt the production of medium-to-large-sized fruits. The adoption of these agronomic practices makes pomegranate cultivation a labor-intensive crop [21].

2.1.2. Irrigation

Pomegranate is a drought-tolerant crop [22], and its water requirements are not documented in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) book on water use [23]. However, irrigation is essential during the summer to optimize plant growth, yield, and fruit quality, particularly in semi-arid regions and mild temperate climates, including in most Mediterranean countries [24]. Studies quantifying the water requirements of pomegranate crops and irrigation volumes indicate significant variability due to factors such as evaporative demand, plant age, orchard layout, cultivar, mulching cover, soil type, relative humidity, salinity, and soil water availability. For example, young pomegranate plants (2–4 years old) require approximately 310–519 mm/ha/year of water [18]. Water demand increases with plant age and varies based on cultivar and soil characteristics. For instance, ‘Mollar de Elche’ and ‘Wonderful’ cultivars may require up to 716 mm/ha/year when grown in sandy loam, silt loam, or sandy clay loam soils [25,26,27,28]. For pomegranates cultivated in semi-arid areas characterized by water scarcity, the deficit irrigation (DI) method is a suitable irrigation strategy as it allows the water use to be reduced by up to 23% [29,30].

Automatic irrigation scheduling systems through decision support systems (DSSs), which are being gradually employed in the agricultural sector, offer the opportunity to preserve water and effectively manage DI strategies. Decision support systems use the expertise of agronomists (human experts) to learn irrigation scheduling patterns and to replicate human decision-making processes. Furthermore, DSSs facilitate continuous learning throughout their use, enabling them to adapt their performance in response to contextual changes or evolving objectives. As a result, DSSs in agriculture serve as valuable tools for optimizing irrigation management and have demonstrated effective performance. In some applications for irrigation management, knowledge-based learning models have been developed using climate data sourced from weather station networks [31]. Despite this, DSS adoption by farmers and agricultural advisors is often unexpectedly low. The reasons for this low level of adoption are multifaceted and depend on several factors, including the socioeconomic status of farmers and agricultural advisors, farm size, and the specific country context. In the case of Italy, this can be further influenced by regional differences, the availability of financial resources, and the technological infrastructure in place. Additionally, a key barrier to DSS adoption is the prior experience and familiarity of farmers and advisors with such systems. Farmers who have limited familiarity, experience or training in using DSSs, along with farmers with small farm sizes, are less likely to incorporate these tools into their daily practices, even when they have been proven to be effective [31].

However, research on DI effectiveness has produced conflicting results. Some studies suggest that pomegranate trees can tolerate water stress during specific growth stages, such as the flowering and fruit set, without adverse effects on yield, fruit size, or nutritional quality [27]. These findings point out the potential for implementing DI during these stages to promote water conservation. Conversely, other studies have reported contrasting outcomes, indicating that DI applied throughout the growing season may negatively impact yield, fruit size, and the concentration of nutritional compounds in the fruit [28,32]. The effectiveness of DI seems to be highly dependent on two key factors: the specific pomegranate variety and the prevailing climate conditions [33]. For instance, studies conducted in the Apulia region by Tarantino et al. [18,19] found that young ‘Wonderful’ pomegranate trees require full irrigation during dry seasons to achieve optimal growth and yield. However, other researchers have demonstrated the successful application of DI under different climatic conditions or for different cultivars. Given these variations, no universally applicable guidelines currently exist for DI in pomegranate irrigation, and further studies are essential to explore what areas DI can be applied in, as highlighted by Moriana and Fereres [34]. Future research should account for factors including cultivar, soil properties, temperature, humidity, and precipitation patterns.

In terms of irrigation methods to deliver the amount of water for pomegranate trees, drip irrigation is generally preferable to conventional techniques such as flood, furrow, or ring-basin irrigation. This amount of water could be also delivered by the use of DSSs. Specifically, integrating drip irrigation with mulching has been shown to reduce soil evaporation, enhance fruit yield and quality, and optimize water use efficiency [35]. Additionally, the proper placement of drip lines is essential to prevent potential issues such as collar rot; positioning drip lines away from the plant collar helps to mitigate this risk [21]. Weed control in the inter-row area, which remains unexploited by tree roots, are managed by mechanical tillage or herbicide application (Figure 1b). However, these methods are increasingly unsustainable due to soil erosion risks in hilly environments and the excessive use of synthetic chemicals. A more sustainable and novel approach involves the promotion of spontaneous or sown cover crops that prevent soil erosion, improve water infiltration and retention, and enhance soil organic matter content while reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers. The selection of appropriate cover species is a crucial farm decision and should align with specific farm objectives such as nutrient fixation, weed suppression, or attracting beneficial insects.

Cover crop species, seeded as monocultures or mixtures, that are typically employed in Italy belong to three families: Poaceae (Avena strigosa, Avena sativa), Leguminosae (clovers such as Trifolium alexandrinum, T. incarnatum, T. squarrosum and vetch such as Vicia sativa, V. villosa, V. benghalensis), and Brassicaceae (Sinapis alba, Brassica juncea, Raphanus sativus) [36]. Leguminous species, such as clovers and vetch, are particularly advantageous due to their nitrogen-fixing properties. However, integrating cover crops requires careful planning, additional labor, and resources, which may increase orchard management costs [36].

2.1.3. Fertilization

Regarding fertilization, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) are the most crucial nutrients required in abundance for plant growth. Nitrogen and phosphorus support vegetative growth, and potassium enhances stress resistance, promotes flowering, fruit size, quality, yield, and ripening [37]. For pomegranate orchards producing 20–30 t/ha of fruit, a typical NPK fertilizer application consists of 100 kg/ha N, 50 kg/ha P, and 130 kg/ha K. These amounts can be adjusted upward for higher expected yields or in cases of poor soil conditions. Phosphorus, due to its relative stability in soil, is applied less frequently and in smaller quantities. In their first year, pomegranate plants benefit from organic mulches, such as rotted manure, which slowly release nutrients and improve soil health for long-term sustainability, unlike chemical fertilizers. From the second to the fifth year, nitrogen application gradually increases, ranging from 57 g to 227 g per plant during the spring season. Furthermore, in line with the F2F strategy’s goal of reducing chemical fertilizer use by 20%, alternative organic fertilizers, such as agricultural bio-stimulants (ABs), can be employed. ABs are composed of natural substances, including humic and fulvic acids, protein hydrolysates, nitrogen-containing compounds, seaweed extracts, beneficial fungi and bacteria, chitosan, other biopolymers, and inorganic compounds like zinc oxide and silicon [38]. ABs complement chemical fertilizers by enhancing nutrient uptake and plant growth while minimizing adverse environmental impacts on ecosystems and human health [39].

2.2. Crop Protection Aspects

2.2.1. Abiotic Factors Causing Injuries and Physiological Damage to Pomegranate Fruit

Pomegranate trees in arid and semi-arid regions face severe abiotic stresses, such as drought, nutrient deficiency, salinity, lack of soil moisture, mechanical damage, and extreme temperatures (high or low), which can lead to fruit yield losses. The major fruit damage caused by environmental factors is cracking and splitting, sunburn, and aril whitening. Other causes of fruit yield loss include mechanical and physical damage, such as blemishes and bruising or being undersized, misshapen, or oversized (Figure 2) [40,41].

Fruit cracking and splitting of the fruit skin and flesh are responsible for reduced marketability and occur in preharvest for several reasons: changes in temperature and humidity, genetics, physiological imbalances, lack of soil moisture, and boron or zinc deficiencies [42,43,44]. A recent study also showed a positive correlation between cracking and oversized fruit, especially in the ‘Wonderful’ cultivar [20]. This occurs because oversized fruit loses moisture due to prolonged exposure to the sun, and the resulting loss of moisture content causes the skin of the pomegranate to stretch, leading to cracking [45]. Cracked fruits suffer loss of nutrients, have a shorter shelf life, are more susceptible to fungal and bacterial infections, and are often redirected to processing industries before being infected by microbial saprophytes [46]. Cracking can also occur during postharvest storage, typically due to improper storage conditions [43]. In this case, the symptoms observed consist of skin browning that expands randomly, together with surface spots, albedo brown discoloration, and changes in aril color from red to brown discoloration during handling or storage. Another significant injury in arid and semi-arid regions is heat stress due to the excessive sunlight exposure experienced by the tree canopies and fruit. Under such conditions, the surface temperatures of leaves and fruit can rise to extreme levels, causing detrimental effects on the fruit’s skin. Sunburn damage manifests as large black spots, which make the fruit unmarketable. The affected skin undergoes a color change from brown to black. Furthermore, sunburn can lead to water loss and desiccation of the pomegranate arils. The severity of sunburn is influenced by several factors, including hormone levels, cultivar susceptibility, fruit nutrition, soil moisture levels, and climatic conditions [47]. Moreover, aril whitening (AW), called aril paleness or aril browning, is a frequently observed disorder in hot and dry climates that leads to a decline in desirable fruit qualities [48]. When AW happens, the water content of the fruit is reduced, turning the natural red color of the arils into a light cream color. This process leads to the oxidation of polyphenols, and in a severe state, the arils may turn brown [49]. Pomegranate AW begins during the growth and development of the fruit and can be observed at harvest or after storage. The outside of the fruit typically appears healthy, but by opening the fruit, the disorder on the arils is observable. Several factors contribute to AW, including genetics, hot and dry conditions (high temperature, light intensity, and low humidity), fruit temperature, poor water quality, reduced calcium content, and lower acid levels in the arils [50].

Mechanical and physical damage are the main causes of bruises and blemishes and superficial injuries on the fruit. Bruise damage is caused by compression, vibration, and impact during harvesting and handling. Blemishes and superficial injuries result from various factors, including mechanical damage during tree pruning and the damage caused when pomegranate fruits are thrown against branches and against each other in windy conditions, leading to scratches and blemishes on the fruit’s skin (Figure 2). Furthermore, superficial injuries show a strong positive correlation with decay and crown rot. This can be attributed to the fact that superficial injuries to fruit manifest as scratches and cuts of different shapes, sizes, and depths on the skin of the fruit, thereby leading to defects.

Furthermore, every winter, fruit plants must cope with freezing stress. Winter hardiness is of crucial importance for pomegranate survival and productivity. Most pomegranate cultivars are hardy at temperatures down to 11 °C. Pomegranate trees are most resistant to cold during winter dormancy. However, they are more susceptible to frost damage in the fall before entering dormancy and in the spring during bud break. The bark on the south side closest to the ground is especially vulnerable during these periods. Salinity as abiotic stress is a persistent and serious hazard to agriculture around the world, and it generally significantly impacts plant morphological structures and physiological processes, resulting in decreased plant growth and production. Pomegranate is moderately tolerant to salinity [51], although cultivars show significant variation in their tolerance levels [52,53]. Water for the irrigation of fruit trees should not exhibit an electrical conductivity (EC) greater than 2 dSm⁻¹ (20 mM) [54]. Seven-year-old ‘Wonderful’ pomegranate trees had greater growth reduction after saline water irrigation at 6.0 dSm⁻¹ (60 mM) [55]. Sun et al. [56] reported that the chlorophyll and relative water content of pomegranate leaves reduced dramatically when the soil salinity increased.

To mitigate the effects of abiotic stresses, ABs, alongside other crop management strategies, can be employed to enhance crop growth, improve yield, and boost product quality [57,58,59]. The efficacy of ABs in improving pomegranate yield and fruit quality has been found in several cultivars useful in preventing issues such as fruit cracking [60,61,62,63,64,65]. To combat sunburn caused by high temperatures and intense sunlight, strategies such as kaolin treatments, optimized fertilization, improved irrigation practices, and the use of shade structures have proven effective [66]. While labor-intensive methods like encasing fruits in paper provide excellent protection from light, they are often impractical for large-scale applications. For frost damage prevention, painting tree bark with white latex paint can help reduce temperature fluctuations [67]. For managing salt stress, a combination of approaches is recommended, including plant breeding, the application of chemical primers, foliar sprays of salicylic acid, and the use of beneficial microorganisms [53,68].

2.2.2. Biotic Factors Affecting Pomegranate Plants and Fruits

Pomegranate production is also threatened by several biotic factors that impact yield and quality. Biotic factors are responsible for approximately 36.5% of yield losses, of which one-third occurs postharvest [69]. Fungal infections are the main biotic factors affecting pomegranate quality and yield. The existing literature reports the occurrence of several fungal pathogens, as well as some oomycetes, as being responsible for many wood and fruit diseases across several countries. A comprehensive list of these pathogens, along with the symptoms they induce on pomegranate trees and fruits, as well as the countries in which these occur, is provided in

Table 1. List of pomegranate pathogens, including their symptoms on trees and fruits and the countries in which these pathogens have been reported.

Fungal Species	Symptoms on Trees and Fruits	PEH/POH a Disease	Country	References
Alternaria alternata A. arborescens A. tenuissima Alternaria sp.	Heart rot of pomegranate fruits	PEH/POH	Albania, Cyprus, Greece, India, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Pakistan, Spain, Turkey, USA	[17,70,75]
Aspergillus flavus A. fumigatus A. niger A. tubingensis Aspergillus spp. sect. nigri	Fruit rot of pomegranate	POH	China, Cyprus, Greece, India, Italy	[71,72,73,74,75,76,77]
Botryosphaeria dothidea	Fruit rot of pomegranate	PEH	China	[78]
Botrytis cinerea	Fruit rot of pomegranate	POH	Greece, Italy, Pakistan, USA	[17,79]
Ceratocystis fimbriata	Pomegranate wilt	PEH	China	[80]
Colletotrichum acuctatum C. fiorinae C. gloeosporioides C. nymphaeae C. siamense C. simmondsii C. theobromicola	Anthracnose of pomegranate fruits	PEH/POH	Albania, Brazil, Greece, Italy, USA	[17,72,81,82]
Coniella granati	Pomegranate dieback, crown rot, twig blight, fruit rot, leaf spot	PEH/POH	China, Greece, Iran, Israel, Italy, Mexico, South Africa, Spain, Tunisia, Turkey, USA	[83,84,85,86,87]
Corynespora cassiicola	Fruit rot	PEH	India	[88]
Cytospora punicae	Wood canker, branch dieback, collar rot, fruit rot	PEH/POH	Cyprus, Greece, Iran, Italy, South Africa, USA	[73,89,90,91]
Diaporthe nobilis	Branch decay	PEH	China	[92]
Dwiroopa punicae	Fruit rot and leaf spot	PEH	USA	[93]
Eutypa lata	Dieback and wood canker	PEH	Australia	[94]
Fusarium oxysporum	Fruit rot	PEH/POH	Tunisia	[95]
Globisporangium ultium	Fruit rot	POH	Tunisia	[95]
Lasiodiplodia gilanensis	Dieback	PEH	USA	[96]
Neofusicoccum parvum	Shoot blight, stem cankers, branch canker, plant decay, fruit rot	PEH/POH	Greece, Iran, Italy, USA	[74,97,98,99,100]
Neopestalotiopsis rosae	Foliar and fruit spot	PEH	USA	[101]
Penicillium chrysogenum P. expansum P. glabrum P. implicatum P. herquei	Fruit rot	POH	Greece, India, Italy, Pakistan, Spain, Slovak Republic	[76,86,102,103]
Phoma aliena	Fruit rot	POH	Greece	[104]
Oomycetes: Phytophthora cinnamomi P. cryptogea P. erythroseptica P. inundata P. nicotianae P. niederhauseri P. parvispora P. palmivora P. pseudocryptogea P. rosacearum Phytopythium vexans	Pomegranate dieback, crown rot, collar rot	PEH	Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Turkey	[82,96,105,106]

^a PEH = Preharvest disease; POH = Postharvest disease.

. Fungal pathogens affecting the wood of the pomegranate trees generate common symptoms consisting of wilt, shoot blight, branch and root dieback, and crown rot, while the most common symptoms observed on fruit are spots and rot, during both the pre- and/or postharvest stages [17,70,71,72,73,74] (Figure 3).

Over the past decade, the incidence of fungal diseases has increased globally, particularly in European countries due to the mix of Mediterranean climatic conditions, infected propagation materials, and the widespread use of mulching techniques, which promote wood diseases, especially in plants grown in loamy soils [21].

Many of the fungal species reported in Table 1 infect the plants and ripening fruits in preharvest, often remaining latent until their storage in postharvest conditions. This complex etiology associated with plant decay and fruit rot makes disease control strategies difficult to set up, especially during postharvest.

Chemical control is currently the most effective and rapid method for managing diseases in fruit trees. Literature on the chemical control of pomegranate diseases is limited, with only a few reports addressing both preharvest [107] and postharvest [107,108,109] conditions. Furthermore, there is no certain information available on the specificity of fungicides or the appropriate application timing to minimize the risk of pesticide residues on fruits intended for final consumption [110,111]. Nerya et al. [108] evaluated the effectiveness of several chemicals against Coniella granati decay in postharvest conditions. The chemicals tested included prochloraz, captan, fludioxonil, fluopyram, trifloxystrobin, and tebuconazole. The authors concluded that prochloraz, along with two combinations containing tebuconazole (fluopyram/tebuconazole and trifloxystrobin/tebuconazole), were the most effective in controlling C. granati. Kahramanoglu et al. [109] investigated the effect of the fungicide fludioxonil (FLU) in combination with propolis and black-seed oil application on ‘Wonderful’ variety pomegranate fruits stored under postharvest conditions in controlling gray mold disease due to B. cinerea. They found that FLU could protect the fruits for up to 60 days and that the FLU residue on the fruits fell below the European Union’s maximum residue limit (3 ppm) within 7 days post-treatment. Despite the reduction in residue levels, the fungicide continued to protect the fruits by inhibiting fungal spore germination. Finally, Yang et al. [111] evaluated the efficacy of pyraclostrobin as a fungicide against C. granati in both preharvest and postharvest conditions. Pyraclostrobin demonstrated excellent control efficacy, achieving 92.25% effectiveness in field trials and 92.58% in detached pomegranate fruits during postharvest storage. These results suggest that pyraclostrobin could be a promising fungicide for controlling C. granati.

To date, no fungicides have been fully registered for pomegranates in producer countries, including in Italy. Based on the incidence of pomegranate diseases, some chemical fungicides may be used if they are authorized for a specific period by temporary emergency registration. In Italy, a few fungicides, along with several alternative compounds, are authorized for the control of pomegranate fungal diseases (

Table 2. List of fungicides and alternative compounds temporarily authorized in Italy for the control of pomegranate fungal diseases.

Authorized Molecules	From–To	Category	Use
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum FZB24	21/06/2022–1/06/2032	Bio-fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Bacillus subtilis cp QST 713	28/06/2023–30/06/2038	Bio-fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Trichoderma asperellum	27/05/2024–30/11/2026	Bio-fungicide	Preharvest control of Phytophthora spp.
Sulfur	‘–31/07/2026	Fungicide	Preharvest control of powdery mildew disease by Erisiphe spp.
Eugenol	10/01/2022–30/04/2026	Bio-fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Geraniol	10/01/2022–30/04/2026	Bio-fungicide	Postharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Thymol	30/04/2026	Bio-fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Boscalid (preharvest)	2/03/2022–15/04/2026	Fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea
Fludioxonil (FLU) (postharvest)	27/02/2023–15/06/2025	Fungicide	Postharvest control of diseases by B. cinerea, Alternaria spp., and Aspergillius spp.
Potassium phosphonate	‘–‘	Fungicide	Preharvest control of gray mold disease by B. cinerea and Phytophthora disease
Dazomet	‘–31/08/2026	Biofumigant	Soil treatment
Metam-potassium	‘–31/11/2025	Biofumigant	Soil treatment
Metam-sodium	‘–31/11/2025	Biofumigant	Soil treatment

‘ = missing data.

).

In particular, FLU was approved for use in Italy from 2019 to reduce the incidence of gray mold (Botrytis cinerea) on fruits during postharvest [112,113]. In 2021, the preharvest application of the antagonistic microorganism Bacillus amyloliquefaciens subsp. plantarum, along with sulfur and copper, received temporary approval to help control gray mold disease caused by B. cinerea. In 2022, several treatments were temporarily authorized, including the previously approved microorganism used in combination with boscalid, a commercial formulation based on Trichoderma asperellum strains or T. atroviride strain T11, and essential oils such as geraniol, thymol, and eugenol [113]. Additionally, Coniothyrium minitans was temporarily authorized for leaf treatment, while dazomet, metam-potassium, and metam-sodium were allowed for soil treatment as biofumigants [113].

Given the limited and temporary availability of authorized fungicides and the promising outcomes associated with alternative molecules to chemical ones, the implementation of an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy with minimal environmental impact is essential [114]. Considering this, good agronomical practices (e.g., pruning, the removal of mummies and debris, ensuring adequate but not excessive irrigation and fertilization, the use of agricultural bio-stimulants as plant resistance inducers) are essential in preventing fungal diseases in preharvest. Resistance inducers can stimulate plant growth and induce a general plant defense response, enhancing plant resistance to various pathogens, including fungi, bacteria, and viruses. These practices, when combined with biological control methods (e.g., antagonistic and natural molecules from plants), could be adopted as an alternative to fungicides, in line with the aims of the European F2F strategy to reduce the use of chemicals in agriculture by 50% by 2030. The most promising biological control methods have been reported in a study by Munhuweyi et al. [115], which investigated the efficacy of chitosan as a bio-stimulant and resistance inducer in combination with essential oils against three significant pathogens affecting pomegranate fruits in postharvest: B. cinerea, Penicillium spp., and C. granati. Their findings showed that this combination was effective in inhibiting all three pathogens. Tekiner et al. [114] evaluated the in vitro effectiveness of 11 bacterial strains from the genera Bacillus, Paenibacillus, Pantoea, and Pseudomonas as biocontrol agents for postharvest decay. They identified Bacillus cereus and B. subtilis as the most promising candidates. Hassan et al. [116] tested the effectiveness of Xanthium strumarium L. extract and Trichoderma species against pathogens causing pomegranate fruit rot. Their results indicated that both the X. strumarium extract and Trichoderma were able to control pathogenic fungi in both preharvest and postharvest. Finally, Mincuzzi et al. [117] tested the effectiveness in pre- and in postharvest of a chitosan solution, a plant protein hydrolysate, and a red seaweed extract to control latent (Alternaria spp., Botrytis spp., Coniella spp., Colletotrichum spp., and Cytospora spp.) and wound (Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp.) fungal pathogens. Preharvest applications of seaweed extract and plant hydrolysate were the most effective treatments to reduce the severity of internal pomegranate decay.

3. Economic and Managerial Aspects of Pomegranate Cultivation and Production

The Economy and Management of Pomegranate Cultivation and Production

Pomegranate production and prices, with a focus on Italy. Pomegranate cultivation in Italy has expanded significantly over the past decade, increasing from 37 hectares in 2012 to 1845 hectares in 2023, with a production of 26,796 tons in 2023. Italy is now the second-largest pomegranate producer in Europe, after Spain. Cultivation is primarily concentrated in Apulia (670 hectares), Sicily (371 hectares), and Veneto (210 hectares). The Italian pomegranate cultivation system is similar to the Israeli one, with a density of 500 trees per hectare generally preferred. Key agricultural practices include soil surface operations such as “ridges”, row mulching with reflective plastic sheets, and using a Y-shaped support structure, which generate average pomegranate yields of 30–40 tons per hectare [118]. The initial investment cost averages between EUR 15,000 and EUR 20,000 per hectare, which covers plant materials, fertilization, mulching film, irrigation, and support structures. Labor costs for field preparation, planting, and infrastructure setup account for the remainder. Operational costs during the first two years are about EUR 2000 per hectare annually, rising to EUR 7000–8000 per hectare from the third year onwards, peaking at EUR 12,000 per hectare for high-density systems. Pruning and multi-stage harvesting are major cost drivers, comprising 65–80% of the annual expenses [11,118,119].

De Boni et al. [11] conducted an economic analysis of pomegranate cultivation, assuming a yield of 25.0 tons per hectare (25,000 kg/ha) and an orchard density of 800 plants per hectare based on a planting layout of 5 m× 2.5 m. The study considered a scenario in which farmers sell their produce directly to consumers at a market price of EUR 8 per kilogram—significantly higher than the price obtainable through supply-chain intermediaries. Under these conditions, the total revenue per hectare was estimated at EUR 200,000 (EUR 8/kg × 25,000 kg/ha). After accounting for operational costs—including expenses related to planting, irrigation, fertilization, labor, and harvesting—which amounted to EUR 193,267.80 per hectare, the study reported a gross margin of EUR 6732.20 per hectare. This figure represents the difference between total revenue and operational costs, translating to a profit margin of approximately 3.37% (EUR 6732.20 ÷ EUR 200,000 × 100). The findings suggest that pomegranate cultivation is more profitable than olive and almond production, primarily due to the higher market price of pomegranates and their earlier entry into production compared with these alternative crops [11]. However, while De Boni et al.’s [11] analysis provides valuable insights into the economic potential of pomegranate cultivation, its assumptions may not fully reflect the current structure of Italy’s pomegranate supply chain. The study is based on a direct-to-consumer sales model, whereas in reality, the supply chain is still in a developmental phase. Many farmers and cooperatives negotiate individual agreements with food processing industries across the country, leading to considerable variability in pricing, market access, and distribution channels. Consequently, there is no centralized or systematic reporting on processing volumes, prices farmers receive, or contractual structures, making it difficult to generalize the economic outcomes presented in the study to the broader industry and to farmers. Besides this, Italian farmers predominantly cultivate the ‘Wonderful’ and ‘Acco’ varieties. The ‘Wonderful’ variety, grown in central–southern regions, produces bright red fruits and juicy arils with a sour taste. The variety ‘Acco’, cultivated in northern regions, yields sweet, slightly acidic arils [118]. These varieties are marketed from September to December, with 70% sold domestically and 30% exported, mainly to northern Europe. The rapid expansion of pomegranate cultivation has led to increased market supply and a consequent decline in farmgate prices. Farm-level ISMEA data show a 28% drop in average prices from 2018 (EUR 1.28/kg) to 2022 (EUR 0.92/kg), with a slight rebound to EUR 1.14/kg in 2023 due to inflation [120]. This price, received from intermediaries, is further compressed by overlapping harvest seasons with pomegranate-producing competitor countries like Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Spain, and Israel, creating market oversupply, as illustrated in Figure 4. This concurrence generates an oversupply in the market, consequently driving down prices for Italian producers, especially due to the fact that non-EU pomegranate-exporting countries benefit from lower production costs and are able to sell their products in Europe at lower prices compared with those from European pomegranate producers, including the Italian ones. Additionally, the dominance of the ‘Wonderful’ and ‘Acco’ varieties may limit market performance due to their sensory profiles.

The ‘Wonderful’ variety’s acidic and astringent flavor, along with its large fruit size, might not align with consumer preferences, potentially contributing to lower market prices [121]. Introducing sweeter cultivars like ‘Shiny^®’ and ‘Smith^®’, which also have an August–September harvest window, could match consumer preferences and reach higher market prices by avoiding peak supply periods. Alternative cultivars such as ‘Acco’ can be suitable for fresh consumption, and these are harvested in August and September. To address the decline in prices and profitability of pomegranate cultivation in Italy, a key measure for farmers should be the adoption of supply aggregation strategies, such as forming first- and second-level cooperatives [122]. Aggregating supply facilitates market access by increasing the bargaining power of the producer group compared with individual enterprises. Additionally, cooperatives can focus on seeking new market outlets, developing new formats or derivative products (e.g., cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc.), penetrating various commercial channels (e.g., large-scale distribution, Ho.Re.Ca., online commerce, direct sales support), and promoting the product itself. For cooperatives, investing in product export outside Italy is crucial to creating new sale opportunities and reducing downward pressure on domestic prices during periods of surplus.

Furthermore, aggregative forms of organization would foster collaboration among businesses, allowing them to share expertise and knowledge and to more easily promote joint investments in research and product development, including partnerships with public and private research institutions. Lastly, understanding and responding to consumer preferences play a fundamental role in shaping production strategies. Researchers indicate that Italian consumers favor fresh pomegranates with firm arils, soft to moderately soft seeds, and a predominantly sweet taste while avoiding varieties with woody seeds or pronounced astringency [123]. To align with these preferences, producers should cultivate early- and late-maturing varieties with sweeter sensory traits.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

Drawing on the existing agronomic, crop protection, economic, and managerial knowledge of pomegranate production, as well as the need to produce according to sustainability goals outlined in the F2F strategy, we can identify four main sustainable practices to improve Italian pomegranate production.

First, newcomer pomegranate producers may increase their profitability by lowering the initial investment cost by opting for alternative plant systems such as “globular” and “low vase” shapes that eliminate the need for metal supports, along with avoiding the “ridge” practice, especially in non-loamy soils.

The vase cultivation system, which does not require supports, experiences a yield reduction of 20% to 40% compared with high-density supported systems, which can achieve yields of 25.0 tons per hectare. However, despite the lower yields, the vase system offers advantages in terms of reduced initial investment and lower maintenance costs. Furthermore, Italian farmers may prefer early ripening cultivars (August–September harvest window), such as ‘Acco’, ‘Shiny^®’, and ‘Smith^®’, that may benefit from higher market prices. The use of health propagation materials is crucial for ensuring high-quality production, as it reduces disease incidence during the initial years of pomegranate planting, despite the increased costs.

Second, farmers should prefer drip irrigation methods and optimize irrigation management by adopting DSSs that mix agronomists’ expertise and climate data collected from weather station networks, which would allow them to schedule optimal irrigation patterns tailored to local climatic conditions. The combined use of drip irrigation and DSSs will become an increasingly important agronomic adaptation strategy for farmers to address the long-term impacts of climate change (e.g., extreme heat, drought).

This approach helps to prevent salinity-related issues and reduces the risk of diseases, such as crown rot, that are associated with water stagnation. Likewise, farmers may adopt the deficit irrigation technique after assessing its suitability based on the selected cultivars and climatic conditions; however, there is no conclusive evidence regarding its effectiveness on pomegranates, requiring a case-by-case assessment. Complementing these good agronomical practices, in line with the European Union F2F strategy, the integration of cover cropping—particularly with leguminous plants—not only improves soil health and fertility but also contributes to erosion control and water retention.

At the same time, the use of organic inputs and ABs reduces the dependence on chemical inputs by enriching soil fertility and strengthening plant tolerance to abiotic stresses. Organic inputs and ABs play pivotal roles in optimizing both fruit yield and quality while simultaneously enhancing environmental resilience and matching the growing consumer preference for environmentally friendly products. Furthermore, ABs could be adopted in combination with other protective measures (e.g., the application of kaolin or the installation of shade structures) to strengthen plant resilience against abiotic injuries due to extreme weather, such as sunburn, bleaching, and chilling injuries.

Third, farmers willing to contrast biotic factors and reduce the disease incidence of fungal pathogens need an integrated pest management (IPM) system that lowers the risk of chemical residues on fruits. This approach combines agronomic, biological, and, when necessary, chemical control methods. Regular pruning and the removal of infected plant materials are essential preventive practices. Additionally, using biological control agents, such as Bacillus spp. and Trichoderma spp., along with biomolecules like chitosan as a resistance inducer, provides a sustainable alternative to chemical treatments. IPM may also support a reduction in disease incidence of postharvest diseases that infect the tree in preharvest and remain latent until the harvest stage by ensuring a longer shelf life and better-quality products for consumers.

Fourth and lastly, to align with consumer demand and market trends, farmers and their cooperatives may process their fruits in loco to obtain juices and jams made from fresh organic-grown pomegranates that are free from added sugars, preservatives, and artificial colorants, as the latter are disliked by consumers. Diversifying products in ready-to-eat arils, particularly those packaged in trays and sold across supermarkets and specialty organic stores, may be a suitable alternative to increase farmers’ profitability. Also, blending pomegranate juice with other fruit juices such as red fruits or grapes enhances its appeal by balancing acidity and astringency, creating more palatable and nutrient-rich beverage options for health-oriented consumers. Additionally, producers can deliver their products in non-food markets, such as cosmetic and pharmaceutical ones, to obtain higher profit margins.

Addressing the challenges faced by pomegranate cultivation in Italy requires a comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach. This review provides potential key strategies, including sustainable farming practices, supply aggregation, and production strategies that support market competitiveness and profitability. However, investment in research, innovation, systematic data collection on the pomegranate supply chain, and policy support play a pivotal role in overcoming these challenges and aiding farmers’ efforts in enhancing the pomegranate sector’s competitiveness. Localized research focusing on agronomic practices, irrigation techniques, and disease management is crucial for tailoring solutions to regional conditions. Breeding programs aimed at developing new cultivars with improved disease resistance, stress tolerance, and consumer appeal are essential for sustaining the sector’s competitiveness. Knowledge dissemination through training programs and knowledge-sharing platforms can empower farmers with the latest best practices. Additionally, policy measures that incentivize sustainable farming techniques—such as cover cropping and IPM—through subsidies or tax breaks can further encourage their widespread adoption. Facilitating market access and export opportunities, particularly to northern Europe, would also contribute to the expansion of the Italian pomegranate sector. Thus, joint efforts by farmers, policy makers, and researchers will ensure the long-term sustainability and profitability of pomegranate cultivation in Italy using a multifaceted and integrated approach. By adopting cooperative strategies, aligning production with market preferences, embracing sustainable farming methods, and leveraging research and policy support, Italian pomegranate growers can enhance their competitiveness and secure a resilient and prosperous future for the sector.