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Atmosphere
Volume 17
Issue 2
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Atmosphere, Volume 17, Issue 2 (February 2026) – 110 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Atmospheric CH4 measurements were carried out from June 2023 to May 2024 at Liberti Observatory of CNR-IIA, in a semi-rural site near Rome. CH4 monthly mean concentrations showed maximum and minimum values in winter and summer, respectively, in line with the European trends. Clear CH4 diurnal cycles with daytime low and nighttime high values are mainly driven by atmospheric stability conditions and photochemistry. A cluster analysis of air mass trajectories showed that elevated CH4 concentrations were influenced by NE European contribution, except in winter, when the influence of NW European and local sources became more significant. Furthermore, level-3 XCH4 data from the satellite TROPOMI showed a CH4 columnar concentration increase from 2018 to 2024 in agreement with the global annual growth from the NOAA network in the same period. View this paper
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14 pages, 3034 KB  
Article
Transport Dynamics and Multiscale Turbulence Analysis of Vegetation Canopies Based on Wind Tunnel Experiments
by Guoliang Chen, Fei Li, Ruiqi Wang, Chun-Ho Liu and Ziwei Mo
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020226 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 476
Abstract
The momentum transport and scale-dependent motion characteristics within vegetation canopies play a crucial role in shaping near-surface turbulent structures and exchange processes, yet the interactions among different turbulent scales and their statistical representations remain insufficiently understood. Based on a series of controlled wind [...] Read more.
The momentum transport and scale-dependent motion characteristics within vegetation canopies play a crucial role in shaping near-surface turbulent structures and exchange processes, yet the interactions among different turbulent scales and their statistical representations remain insufficiently understood. Based on a series of controlled wind tunnel experiments, this study identifies coherent turbulent structures using a phase-space algorithm constructed from streamwise velocity fluctuation u′, acceleration a, and jerk j, and compares transport efficiency (exuberance η). This study uses scale-wise (cut-off frequency) momentum flux contribution analysis, natural visibility graph (NVG), and large–small-scale amplitude modulation to examine transport and multiscale behaviors across different canopy densities, array layouts, and inflow conditions. Results show that canopy density (different Cd drag coefficient) is a primary factor governing transport efficiency. Under low-wind staggered configurations, increasing canopy density strengthens the contribution of low-frequency large-scale motions to total momentum flux. In contrast, high-wind aligned configurations intensify canopy-top shear, enhancing small-scale motions and thereby reducing the relative contribution of large-scale motions. NVG analysis further reveals that in high-density canopies, large-scale acceleration and deceleration events tend toward equilibrium, whereas deceleration events dominate consistently in low- and medium-density cases. Amplitude modulation results indicate that high-density cases exhibit highly consistent modulation behavior, followed by low-density cases, while medium-density cases display a pronounced height-dependent variation, characterized by a distinct modulation critical point. This study proposes a unified analytical framework integrating coherent structure detection, graph-theoretic analysis, multiscale transport characterization, and large–small-scale modulation, providing a comprehensive description of momentum transport and scale motions within canopy flows, and it offers new insight into the mechanisms governing complex vegetation canopy turbulence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Low-Altitude Boundary-Layer Flows and Dispersion: Insights from Experiments, Modeling and AI)
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19 pages, 12665 KB  
Article
Upper-Ocean Thermal Rejuvenation Within the Typhoon Inactivity Duration Influences Subsequent Typhoon Development
by Zhengbao Li, Zhaofeng Zheng, Zixuan Wang, Xia Ju, Zhuanling Song, Ruitong Su, Kang Sun, Xiaomin Hu and Jia Sun
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020225 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 428
Abstract
Understanding the upper-ocean thermal response during and between typhoons is critical for accurate prediction of typhoon intensity and for evaluating air–sea interactions. Previous studies have primarily focused on ocean cooling induced by individual typhoons and sea surface temperature (SST) recovery after that, yet [...] Read more.
Understanding the upper-ocean thermal response during and between typhoons is critical for accurate prediction of typhoon intensity and for evaluating air–sea interactions. Previous studies have primarily focused on ocean cooling induced by individual typhoons and sea surface temperature (SST) recovery after that, yet oceanic thermal rejuvenation within the typhoon Inactivity Duration and its influence on the subsequent typhoon remains insufficiently explored. Using 42 years of typhoon best-track data, satellite observations and reanalysis data, we provide the first systematic quantification of the physical link between Inactivity Duration and subsequent typhoon intensification. Here we found that the intensity of the subsequent typhoon increased with typhoon Inactivity Duration. The subsequent typhoon is 6.34 kt and 7.69 hPa stronger than the previous typhoon for every 10 days of increase in typhoon Inactivity Duration. Upper-ocean thermal condition rejuvenated with time and contributed to subsequent typhoon development, and both SST and ocean heat content (OHC) exhibited significant phase changes from negative after the preceding typhoon to positive prior to the subsequent one, accompanied by a notable shoaling of the mixed layer depth (MLD) and sustained high levels of atmospheric instability. These coordinated environmental changes provide enhanced energy reserves and more favorable thermodynamic conditions for typhoon development after the inactivity period. These findings highlight the importance of considering ocean thermal rejuvenation in forecasting typhoon intensity and provide a quantitative framework for assessing sequential typhoon interactions with the upper ocean, offering theoretical support for improved intensity forecasting. Full article
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25 pages, 1977 KB  
Review
Catalytic Conversion of CO2 to Methanol: Advances in Catalyst Design and Plasma-Assisted Technology
by Tao Zhu, Tongyu Shi, Xueli Zhang, Bo Yuan and Chen Li
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020224 - 22 Feb 2026
Viewed by 719
Abstract
The hydrogenation of CO2 to methanol is a crucial route for achieving carbon recycling. Among the extensively studied catalysts, copper-based catalysts suffer from insufficient activity and stability, while noble metal catalysts are limited by prohibitively high cost. In contrast, metal–organic framework (MOF) [...] Read more.
The hydrogenation of CO2 to methanol is a crucial route for achieving carbon recycling. Among the extensively studied catalysts, copper-based catalysts suffer from insufficient activity and stability, while noble metal catalysts are limited by prohibitively high cost. In contrast, metal–organic framework (MOF) materials demonstrate unique advantages due to their designable architectures and high dispersion. Conventional thermal catalysis relies on high temperature and pressure; photocatalysis suffers from low efficiency; and electrocatalysis shows poor selectivity. These limitations motivate the exploration of new catalytic approaches. Plasma catalysis, particularly dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) technology, can efficiently activate CO2 via high-energy electrons and reactive species at ambient temperature and pressure, and generate a synergistic effect with catalysts, significantly enhancing methanol production efficiency and selectivity. Studies have shown that plasma–catalyst synergistic systems, such as those employing Cu/γ-Al2O3 or Pt/In2O3, exhibit superior performance to individual processes under mild conditions. Future research should focus on elucidating the plasma–catalyst interface mechanism, optimizing reactor design, and developing compatible, high-efficiency catalysts to establish a novel pathway for CO2 conversion with low energy consumption and high efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollution Control in China: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives (3rd Edition))
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28 pages, 1824 KB  
Article
Multivariate Analysis of Factors Influencing the Concentration of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Microplastics in Mosses Sampled Across Germany in 2020
by Stefan Nickel, Winfried Schröder, Annekatrin Dreyer, Christine Kube and Carmen Wolf
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020223 - 21 Feb 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 366
Abstract
Mosses (Bryophyta) are well-established biomonitors of atmospheric deposition, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and microplastics (MPs). Using German Moss Survey 2020 data, this study identified factors influencing POPs and MPs in mosses through correlation and random forest analyses. For 10 of 11 POP [...] Read more.
Mosses (Bryophyta) are well-established biomonitors of atmospheric deposition, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and microplastics (MPs). Using German Moss Survey 2020 data, this study identified factors influencing POPs and MPs in mosses through correlation and random forest analyses. For 10 of 11 POP groups, the models explained a variance of more than 20%. Key predictors included atmospheric deposition and the density of urban–industrial and agricultural land uses within 100–300 km. Population density and the density of extraction and dump sites within radii of <5 km (PCDD/Fs, PCDD/F TEQ values, HBCD, 23 PBDEs, BDE-209, DBDPE, PBT, and HBBz), as well as distances to residential areas and transport infrastructure (PCDD/Fs, HBCD, PBDEs, DP, and DBDPE), also proved to be highly relevant, although a direct causal relationship seems unlikely for flame retardants. These findings indicate that POP concentrations in mosses are influenced not only by large-scale atmospheric deposition but also by local emission sources near sampling sites. Vegetation parameters, particularly the leaf area index, showed additional effects. For MP, only two polymer groups (SBR and PE) yielded models with sufficient predictive strength, again dominated by proximity to local sources. Minimum sample size analysis demonstrated that a denser sampling network is required to achieve a 20% tolerance error in future monitoring campaigns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biomonitoring Air Pollution for a Healthier Planet)
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10 pages, 511 KB  
Article
Development of Odour Intensity Reference Solutions for Environmental Odour Evaluation
by Takaya Higuchi and Yingchao Cheng
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020222 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 298
Abstract
For the appropriate evaluation of environmental odours, it is necessary to develop a reliable odour measurement scale. Odour intensity is one of the main odour characterisation parameters and a remarkably common and important sensory indicator of environmental odours. In this study, the odour [...] Read more.
For the appropriate evaluation of environmental odours, it is necessary to develop a reliable odour measurement scale. Odour intensity is one of the main odour characterisation parameters and a remarkably common and important sensory indicator of environmental odours. In this study, the odour intensity level between two and four of the six-point odour intensity scale was focused on, and odour intensity reference solutions of representative odorants for environmental odour evaluation were developed. As a result, propionic acid, propylamine, ethyl acetate, and isobutyraldehyde were selected as representative odorants, and three concentration steps of each odorant were determined to cover the odour intensity of two, three, and four of the six-point odour intensity scale. These reference odour solutions will be applicable to the training of inexperienced panel members and reliable on-site investigations of environmental odours. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Integrated Air Quality Management: Emissions, Monitoring, Modelling (4th Edition))
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14 pages, 3674 KB  
Article
Assessment of CO2 Emissions from the Private Housing Sector in the City of Kokshetau and Analysis of Temperature Trends in the Context of Regional Climate Change
by Baurzhan Yessenzholov, Anuarbek Kakabayev, Gulzhan Dankina and Gulmira Kyzdarbekova
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020221 - 21 Feb 2026
Viewed by 232
Abstract
In the context of accelerating climate change and increasing urbanisation, the private housing sector is becoming a significant source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which contribute to anthropogenic pressure on the urban atmosphere and require detailed quantitative assessment. The aim of [...] Read more.
In the context of accelerating climate change and increasing urbanisation, the private housing sector is becoming a significant source of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which contribute to anthropogenic pressure on the urban atmosphere and require detailed quantitative assessment. The aim of this study is to assess CO2 emissions in the private residential sector and compare their spatial distribution with observed temperature trends in the context of regional climate change. Carbon footprint calculations were performed using data on fuel and electricity consumption, complemented by geoinformation analysis to map emission patterns. On average, a single household in Kokshetau accounts for 19.27 tons of CO2 emissions per year from electricity and coal use. A clear trend of annual warming has been identified. The obtained value of Zs = 2.14 confirms the statistical significance of the temperature increase. A stable warming rate (Qmed = 0.03 °C/year) has resulted in a total rise of 1.14 °C since 1986, indicating a long-term shift in the regional climate toward warming. The use of remote sensing data and GIS analysis enabled detailed zoning of the territory based on thermal characteristics. The proposed decarbonization scenarios demonstrate that no single measure can fully achieve the targeted indicators. Maximum efficiency (over a 50% reduction in emissions) is achieved only under a combined scenario. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Climatology)
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22 pages, 2267 KB  
Article
Spatio-Temporal Variation Characteristics of PM2.5 and O3 in the Yellow River Great Bend Urban Agglomeration from 2020 to 2023
by Shangpeng Sun, Xiaoli Xia and Zhenyu Tian
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020220 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 337
Abstract
The Yellow River Great Bend Urban Agglomeration is a key area in the ecological protection and high-quality development strategy of the Yellow River Basin. In the process of coordinated regional development, the contradiction between economic development and environmental protection has become increasingly prominent, [...] Read more.
The Yellow River Great Bend Urban Agglomeration is a key area in the ecological protection and high-quality development strategy of the Yellow River Basin. In the process of coordinated regional development, the contradiction between economic development and environmental protection has become increasingly prominent, and the pollution problems of PM2.5 and O3 have become prominent. Based on the observation data of air pollutants and meteorological data of 15 cities from 2020 to 2023, this study explored the spatio-temporal variation characteristics of PM2.5 and O3 concentrations in this region and the influence of meteorological factors (temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and precipitation). The results showed that the proportion of days with good air quality in the Yellow River Great Bend Urban Agglomeration metropolitan area increased first and then decreased from 2020 to 2023. PM2.5 concentrations were highest in winter and lowest in summer, with moderate levels in spring and autumn. In contrast, O3 concentrations peaked in summer and reached their lowest levels in winter. In terms of spatial variation, the spatial distribution of the number of PM2.5 polluted days roughly decreases from northwest to southeast, with Taiyuan City having the largest number of polluted days. The number of days with O3 pollution roughly shows a pattern of more in the middle and less around the periphery. Spatial autocorrelation analysis indicates that the PM2.5 concentration and O3 concentration in the Yellow River Great Bend Urban Agglomeration have obvious high-value and low-value spatial agglomeration characteristics. Meteorological elements have a significant influence on the concentrations of PM2.5 and O3. The occurrence frequencies of PM2.5 pollution and O3 pollution were significantly higher respectively within the temperature ranges of −10 to 15 °C and 20 to 30 °C, as well as under the condition of RH > 50% and in the range of 30% to 70% of the relative humidity. Statistical analysis revealed a universally significant negative correlation between wind speed and PM2.5 concentrations across all cities (mean R = −0.09, binomial test p < 0.001), confirming the critical role of stagnant conditions in local pollutant accumulation. The results of this study can provide important references for regional precise pollution control and environmental quality improvement and are of great significance for promoting regional sustainable development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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19 pages, 4499 KB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Carbon Fluxes and Their Environmental Drivers in a Plateau Urban Wetlands Ecosystem Based on Eddy Covariance Observations
by Jiankang Ling, Xufeng Mao, Xiaoyan Wei, Xiuhua Song, Lele Zhang, Hongyan Yu, Yongxiao Yang, Jintao Zhang and Shunbang Xie
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020219 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 301
Abstract
Urban wetlands on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau are increasingly recognized as potentially important components of city-scale carbon budgets; however, their CO2 flux dynamics and associated environmental drivers remain insufficiently quantified, particularly under high-altitude urban conditions. In this study, we addressed this knowledge gap [...] Read more.
Urban wetlands on the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau are increasingly recognized as potentially important components of city-scale carbon budgets; however, their CO2 flux dynamics and associated environmental drivers remain insufficiently quantified, particularly under high-altitude urban conditions. In this study, we addressed this knowledge gap by conducting continuous eddy covariance observations at Haihu Wetland Park in Xining City, China. Carbon fluxes were monitored throughout 2023 using the Huangshui Park Station flux tower. We quantified the temporal dynamics of gross primary productivity (GPP), ecosystem respiration (Re), and net ecosystem exchange (NEE), and systematically assessed their responses to key environmental drivers across multiple temporal scales. GPP and Re exhibited unimodal seasonal patterns, with substantially higher values during the growing season. NEE showed pronounced diel cycling, with nighttime CO2 release and daytime uptake, and shifted seasonally between net source and net sink states. At the daily scale (n = 365), Pearson correlations showed that air temperature (Ta), 5 cm soil temperature (Ts5) and volumetric soil water content (SWC) exhibited the strongest associations with the flux components, whereas photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) showed moderate associations and precipitation was weak. At the monthly scale (n = 12), Mantel tests further highlighted a dominant thermal control on GPP and Re (Ta and Ts5), whereas precipitation showed additional associations with Re and NEE. Overall, the ecosystem acted as a net CO2 sink in 2023 (annual NEE = −292.25 g C m−2 yr−1 under our sign convention), with uptake concentrated in the first eight months of the year. Under the combined effects of multiple environmental factors, plateau urban wetlands functioned as a strong carbon sink, and the results of this study provide a data basis for improving the accuracy of carbon budget estimates for this type of ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Its Climate/Ecology and Its Impact on Global Climate/Ecology)
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22 pages, 7126 KB  
Article
A Climatology of Low-Level Jets at the Tiksi Observatory (Laptev Sea, Siberia) Using High-Resolution Regional Climate Model Simulations
by Günther Heinemann and Lukas Schefczyk
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020218 - 20 Feb 2026
Viewed by 401
Abstract
Low-level jets (LLJs) are important mesoscale features in the Arctic and are highly relevant for the atmospheric transport of heat, moisture, and air pollutants, as well as for wind energy and aircraft operations. In this paper, LLJs at the Tiksi observatory in the [...] Read more.
Low-level jets (LLJs) are important mesoscale features in the Arctic and are highly relevant for the atmospheric transport of heat, moisture, and air pollutants, as well as for wind energy and aircraft operations. In this paper, LLJs at the Tiksi observatory in the Laptev Sea region are investigated during the period 2014–2020 using simulations performed with the regional climate model CCLM with a 5 km resolution. The main synoptic weather patterns for LLJs at Tiksi were identified using a self-organizing map (SOM) analysis. LLJs occurred in about 55% of all profiles with an average height of about 400 m and an average speed of about 13 m/s. About 60% of the LLJs had core speeds larger than 10 m/s (strong jets). The occurrence frequency for all jets showed a pronounced seasonal cycle with more and stronger LLJs during winter. The turbulent kinetic energy in the lower ABL was four times as large for LLJs than for situations without LLJs, which underlines the impact of LLJs on turbulent processes in the ABL. The mean duration of LLJ events (duration of at least 6 h) was almost 24 h and the 90th percentile was about two days. About 70% of the LLJ events were associated with downslope winds of the local mountain ridge and had a longer duration of about three days for the 90th percentile. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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28 pages, 12075 KB  
Article
Research on the Driving Mechanism of Water and Sediment Evolution in the Area of the Datengxia Water Control Hub Project: Principle Analysis, Method Design, and Prediction Simulation
by Chengyong Gong, Yinying Wang, Weitao Weng, Shiming Chen and Xinyu Guo
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020217 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 391
Abstract
This study investigates the characteristics of water and sediment evolution under the influence of the Datengxia Water Control Hub Project by analyzing its affected area, with a focus on the driving mechanisms of human activities on these processes. Utilizing hydrological data (1993–2022) from [...] Read more.
This study investigates the characteristics of water and sediment evolution under the influence of the Datengxia Water Control Hub Project by analyzing its affected area, with a focus on the driving mechanisms of human activities on these processes. Utilizing hydrological data (1993–2022) from the Wuxuan and Dahuangjiangkou Stations, along with meteorological, land use, and population data, we applied the M–K (Mann–Kendall) trend test, Pettitt change point test, double mass curve method, and a random forest model. These methods were used to quantify the contributions of rainfall and human activities and to identify the dominant controlling factors. Model reliability was verified by comparing predicted and observed P-III (Pearson Type III distribution curve), enabling an assessment of water–sediment changes before and after the project’s construction. The results indicate that (1) both stations showed a non-significant declining trend in runoff and sediment load, with a human activity-induced change point detected in 2003; (2) human activities accounted for 93.18% and 92.38% of the reduction in runoff and sediment load at Wuxuan Station, and 74.44% and 54.33% at Dahuangjiangkou Station, respectively; (3) population density was the dominant factor for water–sediment changes at Wuxuan Station (influence weight: 0.41), while grassland area (0.41) and population density (0.40) primarily controlled runoff and sediment changes, respectively, at Dahuangjiangkou Station; (4) following project construction, the trend of the decreasing flood inundation extent with increasing frequency became more pronounced, and sediment deposition was concentrated mainly in the reservoir area and downstream reaches. The study confirms the dominant role of human activities in the basin’s water–sediment dynamics, and the established methodological framework provides a scientific basis for integrated watershed management and ecological conservation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Compound Extreme Events in a Changing Climate: Atmospheric Mechanisms and Hydrological Consequences)
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15 pages, 1669 KB  
Article
Impact of Large-Scale Wildfires and Meteorological Factors on PM Concentrations in Agricultural Regions: Non-Linear Relationship Analysis Using GAM
by Hee-Jin Kim, Ki-Youn Kim and Jin-Ho Kim
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020216 - 19 Feb 2026
Viewed by 434
Abstract
The intensification of large-scale wildfires, driven by climate change, presents a critical threat to agricultural ecosystems, specifically during the vulnerable sowing season in March. Departing from the prevailing focus on urban air quality, this study elucidates the spatiotemporal dynamics of particulate matter (PM) [...] Read more.
The intensification of large-scale wildfires, driven by climate change, presents a critical threat to agricultural ecosystems, specifically during the vulnerable sowing season in March. Departing from the prevailing focus on urban air quality, this study elucidates the spatiotemporal dynamics of particulate matter (PM) in eight major Korean agricultural regions during the March 2025 wildfires. By employing a Generalized Additive Model (GAM), we characterized the complex non-linear interactions between PM concentrations and meteorological variables. The analysis reveals a substantial elevation in PM levels during the wildfire event relative to the pre-fire baseline. Most notably, the Sangju region experienced the most acute accumulation, with PM-10 and PM-2.5 concentrations surging by 74% and 46%, respectively; this intensification was significantly compounded by topographic trapping and surface inversion phenomena. Furthermore, GAM results identified temperature and relative humidity as the primary determinants of PM retention, whereas wind speed demonstrated a distinct non-linear, U-shaped effect, facilitating particulate resuspension at higher velocities. These findings quantitatively underscore the susceptibility of agricultural environments to wildfire-induced aerosols and highlight the imperative for establishing agriculture-specific monitoring networks and early warning protocols to safeguard crop productivity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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23 pages, 6865 KB  
Article
A Comprehensive Evaluation of Evapotranspiration in Mainland Portugal Based on Climate Reanalysis Data
by João Pedro Pegas, João Filipe Santos and Maria Manuela Portela
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020215 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 405
Abstract
Gridded meteorological data sources, such as reanalysis datasets, are increasingly used to estimate evapotranspiration, a key variable for surface water-budget analyses at regional and national scales and for assessing plant water requirements for irrigation. This study, conducted over mainland Portugal for the 44-year [...] Read more.
Gridded meteorological data sources, such as reanalysis datasets, are increasingly used to estimate evapotranspiration, a key variable for surface water-budget analyses at regional and national scales and for assessing plant water requirements for irrigation. This study, conducted over mainland Portugal for the 44-year reference period from 1980 to 2023, first presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the spatial patterns of potential (Ep) and reference (Eto) evapotranspiration at a 0.1° spatial resolution using daily data. Estimates derived from two high-resolution datasets (GLEAM and ERA5-Land) are compared with those obtained from the Thornthwaite, Hargreaves–Samani, and Penman–Monteith models. Secondly, trend analyses of Eto magnitudes on a monthly and annual basis in a gridded format were conducted. The resulting spatial distributions of Ep and Eto show higher values in milder and flatter southern Portugal and lower values in the cooler and more mountainous northern regions, in agreement with existing knowledge. The Penman–Monteith model exhibited the highest reliability, while the Thornthwaite model generally underestimated evapotranspiration across the country, and the Hargreaves–Samani model showed underestimation in coastal areas. Trend analysis of Eto indicates an overall increase in atmospheric evaporative demand over the full study period, with a more pronounced rise during the recent 22-year period (2002–2023) compared with the earlier period (1980–2001). These increases are statistically significant in August and October and may reflect a climate shift towards a progressively longer dry season. Understanding how changes in evapotranspiration affect hydrological processes—including surface water availability, river discharge, reservoir performance, and crop requirement—is critical. This study aims to contribute to addressing these emerging challenges. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Challenge of Weather and Climate Prediction (2nd Edition))
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23 pages, 7665 KB  
Article
First Observation of Offshore Gradient of CO2 and CH4 Concentration in Southeast China from 21° N to 32° N Based on Shipborne Campaign
by Yiwei Xu, Jie Wang, Libin Zhu, Na Ma, Jie Qin, Jiandong Xia, Wenjie Hu, Chen Deng, Lewei Zeng, Wilson B. C. Tsui and Xiaoquan Song
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020214 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 499
Abstract
A shipborne campaign was conducted in China’s southeastern coastal waters (21° N–32° N) from 14 to 31 January 2024 to investigate atmospheric CO2 and CH4 concentrations and their offshore gradients. Advanced instrumentation enabled high-precision measurements, validated by canister sampling with strong [...] Read more.
A shipborne campaign was conducted in China’s southeastern coastal waters (21° N–32° N) from 14 to 31 January 2024 to investigate atmospheric CO2 and CH4 concentrations and their offshore gradients. Advanced instrumentation enabled high-precision measurements, validated by canister sampling with strong correlations to reference data. The voyage employed a dual-route design: a northbound baseline along the mainland coast and a southbound route with offshore excursions up to 80 nm, facilitating the first quantification of GHG gradients in the continental shelf region. Baseline concentrations from the northbound route revealed regional variability: CO2 levels ranged from 422.75 ± 9.96 ppm (Fujian) to 445.62 ± 1.51 ppm (Zhejiang), while CH4 levels spanned 2005.78 ± 5.89 ppb (Fujian) to 2064.59 ± 13.93 ppb (Zhejiang). Southbound analysis at 10 nm intervals showed CO2 gradients transitioning from positive to negative at ~30 nm and back to positive at ~70 nm, whereas CH4 exhibited complex behavior, including a positive–negative–positive transition at 30–40 nm and consistent increase beyond 50 nm. Under winter monsoon conditions, transport flux analysis identified eastward CO2 fluxes of 3819.55–6587.77 g·m−2·s−1 and CH4 fluxes of 6.42–11.42 g·m−2·s−1. Southward transport diminished along the coast, with CO2 fluxes declining from 5741.07 to 879.76 g·m−2·s−1 and CH4 fluxes from 9.84 to 1.49 g·m−2·s−1 between Zhoushan and Hong Kong. The Taiwan Strait demonstrated a funneling effect, enhancing southward transport. These findings address data gaps in ocean regions and provide insights for future GHG monitoring. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ocean–Atmosphere–Land Interactions and Their Roles in Climate Change (2nd Edition))
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16 pages, 3114 KB  
Article
The 2025 Extreme Dust Events in China: Evidence, Attribution, and Implications for Regional Air Quality Assessment
by Shengkai Wang, Xiao-Yi Yang and Chenghan Luo
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020213 - 18 Feb 2026
Viewed by 789
Abstract
Dust activity is controlled by multiple environmental factors and exhibits substantial spatiotemporal and interannual variability. In spring 2025, China experienced unusually frequent dust storms. Surface meteorological observations and PM10 levels show that dust events in 2025 were the most frequent and intense [...] Read more.
Dust activity is controlled by multiple environmental factors and exhibits substantial spatiotemporal and interannual variability. In spring 2025, China experienced unusually frequent dust storms. Surface meteorological observations and PM10 levels show that dust events in 2025 were the most frequent and intense of the last decade. The dust event analysis indicates a pronounced change in transport pathways, with affected regions extending to Central, Southwest, and South China. This differs markedly from the 2021 and 2023 events, which impacted northern China more broadly. Source attribution indicates that the Gobi Desert was the dominant contributor to downstream dust, accounting for 80.0%, 83.1%, and 78.6% of dust concentrations in North, Southwest, and South China, respectively. In addition, enhanced surface winds over the Gobi Desert were identified as the primary drivers of intensified dust emissions, while concurrent changes in precipitation, soil moisture, and vegetation cover played secondary roles. An anomalous low-pressure system over the Bohai–Yellow Sea facilitated northerly wind anomalies, enabling long-range southward dust transport from the Gobi Desert all the way to southern China. These findings improve our understanding of extreme dust events and emphasize the need to consider both emission strength and transport efficiency in regional air quality assessments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Meteorology)
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19 pages, 6649 KB  
Article
Field Evaluation of Residential Ventilation Performance Using Simultaneous Multi-Pollutant Generation and Continuous Monitoring
by Taeyon Hwang, Gon Kim, Joowook Kim and Beungyong Park
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020212 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 434
Abstract
This study evaluates the feasibility of continuous indoor pollutant monitoring as an indirect method for assessing extended ventilation performance in residential buildings. This research addresses key limitations of conventional short-term tracer-gas methods, which cannot account for occupant lifestyle, environmental fluctuations, and extended ventilation [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the feasibility of continuous indoor pollutant monitoring as an indirect method for assessing extended ventilation performance in residential buildings. This research addresses key limitations of conventional short-term tracer-gas methods, which cannot account for occupant lifestyle, environmental fluctuations, and extended ventilation variability. The study employs a diffusion-based framework to interpret pollutant-concentration equalization across the residential space over extended monitoring periods. We conducted field experiments in an apartment unit equipped with both ducted and non-ducted ventilation systems. Pollutants (PM2.5, CO2, HCHO, and aromatic VOCs (BTEX + styrene)) were uniformly emitted. PM2.5 and CO2 were continuously monitored at six spatially distributed points using calibrated sensors, while HCHO and aromatic VOCs were quantified by repeated active sampling and laboratory analysis. Under ducted ventilation, average pollutant reduction rates reached 86.8% for PM2.5, 58.3% for CO2, and 53.6% for HCHO. Simultaneously, spatial concentration variance decreased by up to 71% within 120 min, indicating strong diffusion-driven equalizations. These results support the feasibility of extended ventilation performance monitoring using continuous pollutant sensing, with implications for IAQ management, energy optimization, and future integration with data-driven predictive models. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution Control)
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23 pages, 4307 KB  
Article
Application of Solar HVAC System in Residential Buildings for Winter Conditions in Mediterranean Climate
by Eusébio Conceição, João Gomes, Margarida Conceição, Maria Inês Conceição, Maria Manuela Lúcio and Hazim Awbi
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020211 - 17 Feb 2026
Viewed by 365
Abstract
The design of thermal strategies applied in buildings based on the use of renewable energies can play an important role in the development of a built environment that is better adapted to the climate. This paper is focused on the application of a [...] Read more.
The design of thermal strategies applied in buildings based on the use of renewable energies can play an important role in the development of a built environment that is better adapted to the climate. This paper is focused on the application of a renewable solar energy system coupled with a Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioned (HVAC) system to promote occupants’ thermal comfort (TC) and indoor air quality (IAQ) in buildings during heating season. In the building thermal design, a building thermal dynamic model is used to calculate the temperatures of the opaque and transparent building surfaces, the temperature of the water supply ducts, the TC level and the IAQ level, among other variables. The TC conditions of the occupants were evaluated using the Predicted Mean Vote index, commonly used in the literature in similar studies. IAQ was assessed by the usual carbon dioxide concentration in environments where most of the pollution is of human origin. The numerical study was carried out in a virtual residential building consisting of two floors and seven compartments. The building is occupied at night and at midday. Two cases were studied, considering, respectively, the non-use and use of the solar HVAC system. The solar HVAC system consists of solar water collectors, installed above the roof area, and thermo-convector heat exchangers, installed inside each occupied space. The results show that the application of this solar HVAC system in a Mediterranean-type climate is able to guarantee, during occupancy, acceptable TC levels in three compartments and near acceptable TC levels in one compartment. Regarding IAQ, acceptable level can be achieved throughout the day. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modelling of Indoor Air Quality and Thermal Comfort)
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36 pages, 20632 KB  
Article
Holocene Environmental Changes and Their Drivers in a Mid-Latitude Desert Plateau (Alashan, China) of the Northern Hemisphere
by Chen Sun and Bing-Qi Zhu
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020210 - 15 Feb 2026
Viewed by 700
Abstract
Understanding the Holocene environmental history of desert landscapes in northern China contributes to elucidating the mechanisms driving desertification in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere (NH). Based on a systematic and comparative analysis on integrated paleoclimatic data from both China and the international [...] Read more.
Understanding the Holocene environmental history of desert landscapes in northern China contributes to elucidating the mechanisms driving desertification in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere (NH). Based on a systematic and comparative analysis on integrated paleoclimatic data from both China and the international community, this paper reviews the environmental evolution history of the Alashan Plateau since the Holocene, drawing upon sedimentary and proxy records from three major sandy deserts on the plateau—the Badanjilin, Tenggeli, Wulanbuhe Deserts. The results indicate that the Alashan Plateau experienced generally humid conditions during the early and middle Holocene, characterized by the development of high-level lakes; in contrast, the late Holocene was marked by aridity and intensified aeolian activity. For the three deserts on the plateau, the environmental evolution of the Tenggeli Desert during the early Holocene diverges from that of the other two. Meanwhile, the mid-Holocene drought event in the Badanjilin Deserts remains debated, centering on whether its spatial scale was local or regional across the plateau. The driving mechanism of environmental evolution in the study area can be fundamentally understood through the atmospheric and oceanic circulation systems, combined with solar insolation in the middle latitudes of NH. This interplay is comprehensively reflected by the interactions between the westerlies and the East Asian summer monsoon (EASM) across different periods. Responses of the Alashan Plateau’s climate to global change involve the combined effects of multiple factors, including the Westerlies, the EASM, the Atlantic-Pacific-Ocean (APO) circulation anomalies, the ‘third polar’ environmental effect of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, and the hydrological influence of the Yellow River, etc. The Holocene environmental evolution history of the study area was primarily shaped by climate patterns characterized by cold-dry and cold–wet (or temperate-moist) regimes. Understanding these patterns may provide insights for forecasting future climate trends in the Alashan Plateau under current global warming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weather and Climate Extremes: Past, Current and Future)
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30 pages, 5633 KB  
Article
High-Resolution NO2, O3, and PMs Estimation in Puglia: Leveraging AI and Explainability Techniques
by Alessandro Fania, Giovanni Lorusso, Roberto Cilli, Nicola Amoroso, Maria Adamo, Mariella Aquilino, Loredana Bellantuono, Marica De Lucia, Antonio Lacalamita, Marianna La Rocca, Tommaso Maggipinto, Angela Morabito, Alessandra Nocioni, Ester Pantaleo, Roberto Primerano, Sabina Tangaro, Roberto Bellotti and Alfonso Monaco
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 209; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020209 - 15 Feb 2026
Viewed by 531
Abstract
Air pollution remains a major environmental challenge, with severe impacts on human health and ecosystems. Recent advances in satellite technology have transformed air quality monitoring by enabling global, continuous observations of atmospheric pollutants. However, satellite data often lack the precision of ground-based stations. [...] Read more.
Air pollution remains a major environmental challenge, with severe impacts on human health and ecosystems. Recent advances in satellite technology have transformed air quality monitoring by enabling global, continuous observations of atmospheric pollutants. However, satellite data often lack the precision of ground-based stations. This study aims to develop a machine learning model to predict daily surface concentrations of key air pollutants (NO2, O3, PM10, and PM2.5) at high spatial resolution (300 m) in the Apulia region. Using Regional Environmental Protection Agency (ARPA) station data from 2019 to 2022 and meteorological, geographic, land-use, and temporal variables, we trained an XGBoost model on a 300 m grid. Model performance, assessed by repeated cross-validation, showed an average R2 of 0.71, with values of 0.77 for NO2, 0.78 for O3, 0.67 for PM2.5, and 0.64 for PM10. eXplainable AI (XAI) methods confirmed strong alignment with established scientific knowledge, enhancing model reliability and offering insights into pollutant distribution drivers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Air Quality, Green Spaces, and Microclimate Analysis)
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16 pages, 7677 KB  
Article
Simulation Analysis of Future Sulfate Aerosol Emissions on the Radiation–Cloud–Climate System
by Chunjiang Zhou, Zhaoyi Lv, Hongwei Yang, Ruiqing Li, Shuangchun Lv and Lin Chen
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 208; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020208 - 14 Feb 2026
Viewed by 403
Abstract
This study uses a globally coupled climate framework to examine how regional differences in sulfate emissions, through both direct and indirect aerosol effects, regulate interactions between clouds and radiation and drive nonlinear thermodynamic and hydrological responses in the East Asia and South Asia [...] Read more.
This study uses a globally coupled climate framework to examine how regional differences in sulfate emissions, through both direct and indirect aerosol effects, regulate interactions between clouds and radiation and drive nonlinear thermodynamic and hydrological responses in the East Asia and South Asia summer monsoon region. We employ the Community Earth System Model to compare the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways 1–2.6 and 5–8.5 against the historical scenario with perturbations of anthropogenic sulfate. The results reveal regional contrasts in sulfate concentration and aerosol optical depth: direct shortwave radiation increases in East Asia, while South Asia experiences radiation weakening due to higher aerosol optical depth. Indirect aerosol effects induce cloud adjustments, with East Asia developing more low clouds and higher cloud droplet number concentrations and liquid water paths, leading to greater attenuation of surface shortwave radiation and changes in precipitation and convection. Over the Tibetan Plateau, a higher fraction of high clouds and changes in cloud-top heights jointly drive warming, raising net radiation and strengthening both latent-heat and sensible-heat release. South Asia exhibits a north–south oriented precipitation pattern, with intensified warm advection but a distribution shaped by upper and mid-tropospheric circulations. Overall, the coupling of cloud macro-distribution and cloud microphysics emerges as the principal driver, with direct and indirect effects amplifying nonlinear regional responses. To improve predictability, we advocate multi-model comparisons, observational constraints, tighter bounds on cloud-droplet size distributions, liquid water paths, and cloud droplet number concentrations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Pollution Dynamics in China)
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13 pages, 1692 KB  
Article
Meteorological Drought Under Climate Variability in the Wadi Sly Basin, Algeria (1967–2022)
by Mohammed Achite, Tolga Baris Terzi, Kusum Pandey, Muhammad Jehanzaib and Tommaso Caloiero
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 207; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020207 - 14 Feb 2026
Viewed by 433
Abstract
Meteorological drought is a major natural hazard in semi-arid regions, where high climate variability and strong dependence on precipitation intensify pressure on water resources and socio-economic systems. This study examined the spatiotemporal characteristics of meteorological drought in the Wadi Sly basin (northwestern Algeria) [...] Read more.
Meteorological drought is a major natural hazard in semi-arid regions, where high climate variability and strong dependence on precipitation intensify pressure on water resources and socio-economic systems. This study examined the spatiotemporal characteristics of meteorological drought in the Wadi Sly basin (northwestern Algeria) over the period 1967–2022, using long-term monthly precipitation records from seven meteorological stations. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated at multiple time scales (1-, 3-, 6-, 9-, and 12-month) to characterize drought onset, severity, persistence, and temporal variability. In addition, drought severity probability and frequency analyses were conducted to evaluate the likelihood and recurrence of different drought classes. The results indicate pronounced inter-annual and decadal variability in drought conditions, with severe and prolonged drought episodes occurring during the mid-1980s, early-to-mid-1990s, and late 2010s. During these periods, SPI values frequently fell below −2.0, signifying extreme drought conditions. Spatial analysis reveals strong basin-wide synchronicity of drought events, suggesting the influence of large-scale atmospheric drivers, although localized variations in drought intensity remain evident. Overall, near-normal conditions dominate the record (accounting for approximately 60–70% of observations), while moderately dry conditions occur more frequently than moderately wet conditions at several stations. Drought characteristics exhibit strong scale dependence, with short-term droughts prevailing at shorter SPI time scales, while longer time scales emphasize drought persistence and accumulation. Overall, the findings indicate an increasing prominence of long-duration drought conditions in recent decades, as evidenced by recurrent low SPI values at longer aggregation scales. Such conditions may pose heightened risks to groundwater recharge processes and long-term water resource availability. Despite the limitations inherent in precipitation-based indices, this study provides a robust statistical framework for drought characterization and contributes valuable insights for improved drought monitoring, early warning systems, and climate-resilient water resource management in semi-arid basins. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Spatial and Temporal Variability in Drought: Exploring Regional Drought Indicators and Indices)
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7 pages, 15673 KB  
Correction
Correction: Silva et al. Long-Range Plume Transport from Brazilian Burnings to Urban São Paulo: A Remote Sensing Analysis. Atmosphere 2025, 16, 1022
by Gabriel Marques da Silva, Mateus Fernandes Rodrigues, Laura Silva Pelicer, Gregori de Arruda Moreira, Alexandre Cacheffo, Fábio Juliano da Silva Lopes, Luisa D’Antola de Mello, Giovanni Souza and Eduardo Landulfo
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020206 - 14 Feb 2026
Viewed by 268
Abstract
There was an error in the original publication [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Aerosols: How Are They Emitted, Generated, Transported, Aged, and Deposited?)
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16 pages, 5052 KB  
Article
New Particle Formation and Source Apportionment of Particle Number Size Distribution in the Urban Area of the City of Belgrade
by Željko Ćirović, Danka B. Stojanović, Miloš Davidović, Antonije Onjia, Andres Alastuey and Milena Jovašević-Stojanović
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 205; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020205 - 14 Feb 2026
Viewed by 547
Abstract
Ultrafine particles (UFPs) are particles which can penetrate deeply into the respiratory system due to their small size and can translocate into the bloodstream, where they are linked to oxidative stress, inflammation, and adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Ultrafine particles can originate from direct emissions [...] Read more.
Ultrafine particles (UFPs) are particles which can penetrate deeply into the respiratory system due to their small size and can translocate into the bloodstream, where they are linked to oxidative stress, inflammation, and adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Ultrafine particles can originate from direct emissions or processes of new particle formation (NPF) which we investigated in this study. New particle formation is the process by which molecular clusters form and then grow to larger particles and develop to nucleation and Aitken mode particles. This study presents a detailed analysis of ultrafine particle dynamics in the city of Belgrade, Serbia, based on high-resolution particle number size distribution (PNSD) measurements performed at an urban background site in the period from January to March 2020. A total of seven factors were identified using Positive Matrix Factorization (with contributions in brackets): three attributed to traffic, including mixed source (55%), biomass burning (26%), nucleation (11%), and urban diffuse (8%) sources. The results were obtained by measuring size-resolved number concentrations (10–400 nm) and other pollutants (NO, NO2, NOx, CO, O3, PM1, PM2.5, PM10, equivalent black carbon, organic carbon). Wind directional analysis revealed clear spatial signatures, with nucleation linked to south-western winds and primary factors associated with major local emission influences. The results provide the first combined characterization of new particle formation processes and source-resolved ultrafine particle contributions in Belgrade, offering new insights into wintertime urban exposure in Southeastern Europe. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemistry, Environmental Effects, and Source Analysis of Particulate Matter (2nd Edition))
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24 pages, 4235 KB  
Article
Uncovering Synergies in Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollutant Reductions in a Comprehensive Industrial City in Northern China
by Zekun Zhang, Yubo Pang, Xiahong Shi, Junting Shi, Huifang Zhang and Jinping Cheng
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020204 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 561
Abstract
Coordinated mitigation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and air pollutants (APs) offers an effective strategy to address climate and air quality challenges, yet systematic evaluations in medium-sized industrial cities remain limited, despite their coal-dependent energy systems and emission-intensive manufacturing that disproportionately shape national emission [...] Read more.
Coordinated mitigation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and air pollutants (APs) offers an effective strategy to address climate and air quality challenges, yet systematic evaluations in medium-sized industrial cities remain limited, despite their coal-dependent energy systems and emission-intensive manufacturing that disproportionately shape national emission trajectories. Thus, this study focuses on Weifang, a representative industrial city in Shandong Province, developing a high-resolution, multi-pollutant inventory and applying quantitative synergy indices to characterize emission patterns, sectoral contributions, and hotspot regions. In 2023, Weifang’s total emissions comprised 114.54 million metric tons (Mt) CO2, 121.91 thousand metric tons (kt) CH4, and 27.67 kt N2O, alongside major APs including CO (662.99 kt), TSP (154.44 kt), and NOx (100.83 kt). Industrial sources and electricity-heat production contributed over 80% of CO2 and SO2, while agriculture dominated CH4 (59.5%) and N2O (40.5%). Mobile sources accounted for 66.6% of NOx, over 20% of VOCs, and 61.4% of CO. Spatially, suburban areas produced over 65% of total emissions due to heavy industry and agriculture, whereas the urban core exhibited higher intensities but lower total contributions. Bivariate and integrated synergy indices revealed stronger SO2-NOx-CO2 synergies in the urban core, while suburban emissions were more heterogeneous and spatially dispersed. Synergy analysis indicated strong SO2-CO2 co-variation from shared industrial sources but weak NOx-CO2 correlations due to divergent origins. Hotspot mapping identified industrial parks, power plants, steel zones, and suburban agriculture as priority control areas. These findings demonstrate that source-specific measures are critical to maximizing co-benefits. The proposed methodological framework offers transferable insights for evaluating emission synergies in other industrial cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution Control)
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14 pages, 1107 KB  
Article
Resistance Exercise Training Attenuates Metabolic and Neurovascular Dysfunction Induced by a High-Fat Diet, With or Without Particulate Matter Exposure
by Su-Youn Cho and Hee-Tae Roh
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020203 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 324
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of a high-fat diet (HFD), particulate matter (PM) exposure, and resistance exercise training on circulating lipid profiles, adipokines, inflammatory responses, neurotrophic factors, and blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Forty-eight 10-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to four groups [...] Read more.
This study investigated the effects of a high-fat diet (HFD), particulate matter (PM) exposure, and resistance exercise training on circulating lipid profiles, adipokines, inflammatory responses, neurotrophic factors, and blood–brain barrier (BBB) permeability. Forty-eight 10-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly assigned to four groups (n = 12 per group): normal diet (ND), HFD, HFD with PM exposure (HFD + PM), and HFD with PM exposure plus exercise training (HFD + PM + EX). ND and HFD were administered for 16 weeks, whereas PM exposure and exercise training interventions were initiated after 8 weeks of dietary treatment and continued for an additional 8 weeks. PM was administered via tail vein injection three times per week, and resistance exercise training consisted of a ladder-climbing exercise performed five times per week. The results indicated that body weight, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TGs), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), leptin, interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), S100 calcium-binding protein B (S100B), and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) levels were significantly higher in the HFD group than in the ND group (p < 0.05), whereas adiponectin and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were significantly lower (p < 0.05). In addition, the HFD + PM group exhibited significantly lower BDNF and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) levels (p < 0.05) and significantly higher S100B and NSE levels (p < 0.05) than the HFD group. In contrast, the HFD + PM + EX group showed significantly lower TG, LDL-C, leptin, and IL-6 levels than the HFD group (p < 0.05). Moreover, compared with the HFD + PM group, the HFD + PM + EX group demonstrated significantly lower TG, LDL-C, leptin, S100B, and NSE levels (p < 0.05) and significantly higher high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), adiponectin, BDNF, and VEGF levels (p < 0.05). Collectively, these findings suggest that an HFD may contribute to dyslipidemia, heightened inflammatory responses, downregulation of neurotrophic factors, and increased BBB permeability and that concurrent PM exposure under HFD conditions may exacerbate adverse alterations in neurotrophic factors and BBB permeability. The results indicate that an HFD induces metabolic and neurovascular alterations, whereas concurrent PM exposure under HFD conditions is associated with additional changes in neurotrophic factors and BBB-related markers. Resistance exercise training attenuated these changes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality and Health)
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16 pages, 6100 KB  
Article
An Observational Study of Low-Level Windshear at Hong Kong International Airport in Late Autumn and Early Winter
by P. W. Chan, P. Cheung and Y. Y. Leung
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 202; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020202 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 447
Abstract
Case studies of low-level windshear and turbulence encountered by aircraft with actual pilot reports under all sky conditions are conducted for the first time at Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA) for late autumn to early winter (October to December of the year). These [...] Read more.
Case studies of low-level windshear and turbulence encountered by aircraft with actual pilot reports under all sky conditions are conducted for the first time at Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA) for late autumn to early winter (October to December of the year). These observational analyses follow from the recent enhancements of meteorological instrumentation at HKIA, namely, range–height indicator (RHI) scans of the light detection and ranging system (LIDAR) and the installation of Doppler microwave cloud radar in July 2025. Some novel features of windshear and turbulence are revealed in the present paper. In particular, windshear due to a low-level jet in the presence of liquid clouds shows up clearly in the cloud radar picture. The elevated and elongated mountain wake is well captured by the LIDAR’s RHI scans. And terrain-induced windshear is analyzed for light northerly wind conditions at HKIA. The combination of LIDAR and microwave cloud radar has the potential to provide a truly all-weather windshear and turbulence alerting service for aircraft. However, further research still needs to be performed, and this paper also discusses the future algorithm developments that would be required for this all-weather protection to be realized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aviation Meteorology: Developments and Latest Achievements)
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28 pages, 11993 KB  
Article
Transitions Between Circulation Regimes: The Role of Tropical Heating
by Ralph D. Getzandanner and David M. Straus
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 201; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020201 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 267
Abstract
Four Euro-Atlantic (EA) circulation regimes are identified using cluster analysis applied to 500 hPa geopotential heights from the ERA-Interim (ERAI) reanalysis. These are the positive and negative phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO+, NAO−), Scandinavian Blocking (SB), and the Atlantic Ridge (AR). [...] Read more.
Four Euro-Atlantic (EA) circulation regimes are identified using cluster analysis applied to 500 hPa geopotential heights from the ERA-Interim (ERAI) reanalysis. These are the positive and negative phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO+, NAO−), Scandinavian Blocking (SB), and the Atlantic Ridge (AR). This paper studies transitions between these four regimes, the signature of tropical heating preceding these transitions, and the identification of transitions for which this forcing plays a role. The findings can further our understanding of when transitions occur. To address these questions, we examine the relationship of heating to the Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO), the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), shifts in the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and possible stratospheric influences. Mid-latitude diabatic heating is also examined to determine shifts in the storm tracks. We use the ERAI reanalysis to estimate diabatic heating, streamfunction, Rossby wave activity, and stratospheric zonal winds. We find that Indian Ocean tropical heating enhances the transition from the SB regime to the NAO+ regime. In contrast, western Pacific heating seems to force transitions from all other regimes into the NAO− regime. The flux of Rossby wave activity indicates that in some transitions, mid-latitudes play a role in forcing tropical heating. The majority of the transitions examined show indications of tropically forced behavior. Less than half showed evidence that mid-latitude dynamics were the primary cause of the transition. Nearly half of the transitions appeared to be related to phases of the MJO. We also found that intensification of heating in the eastern equatorial Pacific and equatorial Atlantic (ITCZ) plays a role. Transitions during the early and late parts of the season, along with the role of ENSO, are found to be modest factors. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Subseasonal to Seasonal Predictability)
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23 pages, 2424 KB  
Article
High-Time-Resolution Aerosol Chemistry and Machine-Learning Sensitivity Reveal a Highland Triad Mechanism Driving PM2.5 in Xining (Qinghai–Tibet Plateau)
by Zihong Liang, Xiaofeng Hu, Anan Qi, Guojuan Qu, Weijun Song and Chunyan Sun
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 200; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020200 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 612
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) formation mechanisms in fragile highland ecosystems remain inadequately constrained, particularly regarding thermodynamic non-linearities (aerosol pH, liquid water content) and their interaction with geochemical modulation. Here, we present comprehensive year-long online measurements from Xining, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, integrating hourly [...] Read more.
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) formation mechanisms in fragile highland ecosystems remain inadequately constrained, particularly regarding thermodynamic non-linearities (aerosol pH, liquid water content) and their interaction with geochemical modulation. Here, we present comprehensive year-long online measurements from Xining, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, integrating hourly measurements of water-soluble ions, inorganic elements, and gaseous precursors with ISORROPIA-II thermodynamic modeling and ensemble machine learning. Median pH was 4.38 but exhibited two distinct pH regimes (14.8% pH < 3.0, 11.5% pH > 7.2), with acute acidification enhancing toxic metal solubility (Fe, Pb by 3-5×), and it posed distinct ecological risks. Our analysis reveals a distinct “highland mechanism triad” governing PM2.5 dynamics: (1) winter meteorological confinement amplifying dust-catalyzed sulfate formation (SOR = 0.68); (2) spring alkaline dust buffering (pH > 7.2) that titrates NH3 and suppresses nitrate formation (NOR < 0.10); and (3) summer photochemical oxidation constrained by chronic NH3 limitation within an oxidant-excess regime. Random Forest achieved optimal prediction for the chemically active inorganic fraction (RMSE = 6.63 μg/m3, R2 = 0.91) by learning regime-specific non-linearities, with local sensitivity analysis identifying Ca2+, SO42−, and Al as chemically sensitive drivers (S > 0.35) while revealing NH3’s seasonally variable influence (rank 15 in winter, significant in summer; S > 0.28), subsequently complemented by global SHAP analysis, which further revealed NO3− as the most robust predictor (ranking 1st–2nd) and captured NH3’s non-linear threshold effects (). Positive Matrix Factorization apportioned secondary aerosols (30.11%) within a unique alkaline–dust matrix. These findings demonstrate that highland PM2.5 inorganic chemistry operates through fundamentally different pathways than lowland photochemical haze, with acid-induced toxic metal activation providing a new target for ecological protection in this fragile ecosystem. Seasonally adaptive mitigation is required: concurrent SO2-NH3 control in winter, dust suppression infrastructure in spring, and agricultural NH3 capture in summer. This integrated framework provides a transferable methodology for air-quality management in alkaline dust-dominated, NH3-limited highland ecosystems (>2000 m). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Air Pollution Control and Air Quality Improvement in Chinese Megacity Clusters: From Formation Mechanisms to Mitigation Strategies)
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32 pages, 6003 KB  
Article
Characterization of Coarse Organic Particulate Matter in Urban and Rural Switzerland Using Advanced Offline Mass Spectrometry
by Kristty Stephanie Schneider-Beltran, Tianqu Cui, Roberto Casotto, Houssni Lamkaddam, Anna Tobler, Yufang Hao, Peeyush Khare, Manousos Manousakas, Lubna Dada, Stuart K. Grange, Christoph Hueglin, Gaëlle Uzu, Jean-Luc Jaffrezo, Juanita Rausch, David Jaramillo-Vogel, Claudia Mohr, Imad El-Haddad, Jay G. Slowik, André S. H. Prévôt and Kaspar R. Daellenbach
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020199 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 690
Abstract
Although the organic fraction of PM2.5 has been extensively studied, there is a considerable gap in understanding the organic fraction of coarse particles with diameters between 2.5 and 10 µm. We investigate the composition of coarse organic aerosol (OA) across rural, suburban, [...] Read more.
Although the organic fraction of PM2.5 has been extensively studied, there is a considerable gap in understanding the organic fraction of coarse particles with diameters between 2.5 and 10 µm. We investigate the composition of coarse organic aerosol (OA) across rural, suburban, and urban areas of Switzerland. Using Aerosol Mass Spectrometer analyses of water-soluble OA extracted from collected filter samples (one entire year, 441 samples per size fraction), we identified two distinct classes of coarse OA. The first class, which constitutes 41–81% of coarse organic carbon (OC), is associated with primary biological organic carbon (PBOC). PBOC is characterized by specific marker ions (e.g., C2H5O2+) and exhibits pronounced seasonal variation, with peak concentrations observed in the summer. This seasonal trend correlates with that of molecular markers such as arabitol and mannitol, as well as the fraction of biological particles determined by automated scanning electron microscopy coupled to energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy of individual particles. The second class, contributing 7.9–17.8% to OCcoarse, is denoted as sulfur-containing organic carbon (SCOC) due to the presence of sulfur-containing ions such as CH3SO2+. Elevated concentrations of SCOC in urban environments near roadways suggest a strong influence from non-exhaust traffic emissions and resuspended dust. While the overall variation in coarse OC between rural and urban areas is approximately 10%, PBOC concentrations are 1.4 times higher in rural areas, whereas SCOC concentrations are 1.5 times higher in urban settings. Overall, our study shows that although OCcoarse concentrations in Switzerland are relatively consistent across site types, major water-soluble sources, particle properties and composition vary considerably geographically and seasonally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Air Quality)
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12 pages, 810 KB  
Article
Short-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Psoriasis in Guangzhou, China: Estimating the Association and Population Attributable Fraction
by Huanli Wang, Jiayi Liang, Maofang Huang, Wei Li, Jia Sun, Sanquan Zhang and Zhao Huang
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 198; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020198 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 475
Abstract
Psoriasis is a common, chronic skin disorder that has negative impacts on patients’ quality of life, and is triggered by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. However, epidemiological evidence about the effect of air pollution on psoriasis risk is still limited and [...] Read more.
Psoriasis is a common, chronic skin disorder that has negative impacts on patients’ quality of life, and is triggered by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. However, epidemiological evidence about the effect of air pollution on psoriasis risk is still limited and inconsistent. The generalized additive model (GAM) was applied to investigate the association between common air pollutants and daily psoriasis outpatient visits in Guangzhou, China from 2013 to 2019. The analysis focused on particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 μm and 2.5 μm (PM10 and PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). To examine the effect modifications, stratified analyses were conducted by gender, age, and season. Population attributable fraction of psoriasis burden from ambient air pollution exposure was further calculated. A total of 145,034 psoriasis outpatient visits were included during the study period. Each 10 μg/m3 increment in PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and NO2 was significantly associated with an excess risk of psoriasis outpatient visits of 3.46% (95% CI: 2.53%, 4.39%), 2.51% (95% CI: 1.86%, 3.17%), 4.73% (95% CI: 2.67%, 6.82%), and 4.75% (95% CI: 3.78%, 5.73%) at lag05. Stratified analysis revealed notably stronger effects during the cold seasons. Based on the World Health Organization’s Ambient Air Quality Guidelines, PM2.5, PM10, NO2, and SO2 accounted for 9.08% (95% CI: 6.54%, 11.74%), 4.73% (95% CI: 3.45%, 6.06%), 8.93% (95% CI: 6.99%, 10.93%), and 0.18% (95% CI: 0.10%, 0.27%) of psoriasis outpatient visits, respectively. In conclusion, short-term air pollution exposure is an important risk factor for psoriasis outpatient visits, especially in cold seasons. PM2.5 and NO2 accounted for a relatively larger attributable burden among common air pollutants. Effective strategies are needed for air pollution control and prevention of psoriasis exacerbation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Environmental Exposures and Human Health Across the Life Course: Mechanisms, Modeling, and Vulnerable Populations)
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Article
Enhanced Thunderstorm Forecasting over the South China Sea Through VLF Lightning Data Assimilation
by Tong Xiao, Zhihong Lu, Qiyuan Yin, Zhe Cai and Hui Li
Atmosphere 2026, 17(2), 197; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos17020197 - 13 Feb 2026
Viewed by 450
Abstract
To advance marine thunderstorm forecasting and enhance the operational utility of lightning data, this study developed a novel very low-frequency (VLF) lightning data assimilation scheme for the South China Sea region. The three-dimensional graupel mixing ratio field was successfully inverted from VLF lightning [...] Read more.
To advance marine thunderstorm forecasting and enhance the operational utility of lightning data, this study developed a novel very low-frequency (VLF) lightning data assimilation scheme for the South China Sea region. The three-dimensional graupel mixing ratio field was successfully inverted from VLF lightning detection data through the application of an empirical formula linking lightning frequency to graupel mass, a database of graupel mixing ratio profiles, and a distance-weighted diffusion scheme. This reconstructed field was then subjected to horizontal diffusion and assimilated into the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model using the Grid Nudging module within the WRF–Four-Dimensional Data Assimilation (WRF-FDDA) system. A quantitative evaluation of 37 nocturnal marine convective cases was conducted using Fengyun-4A(FY-4A) satellite observations. The results demonstrate that the proposed assimilation method significantly enhances short-term (0–6 h) forecast performance. Specifically, the Fractions Skill Score (FSS) derived from the Advanced Geosynchronous Radiation Imager (AGRI) data increased rapidly during the early forecast stage, exceeding a value of 0.9. Meanwhile, the Lightning Mapping Imager Event (LMIE) product evaluation showed a high probability of detection (POD) of 85% for lightning forecasts, with a false alarm ratio (FAR) of only 9%. These findings indicate that the assimilation approach improves the accuracy of capturing the spatial structure and evolution of convective systems. Although the degree of improvement diminished with longer lead times, the results confirm the value of VLF lightning data in initializing convective-scale processes and underscore its practical value in marine nowcasting applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Electricity (2nd Edition))
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