Improvement of Removal Rates for Iron and Manganese in Groundwater Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Manganese-Oxide-Coated Sand and Ceramic in Nepal
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Water Supply Projects in the Study Area
2.3. Iron and Manganese Removal Processes in the Study Area
2.3.1. Aeration Unit
2.3.2. Filtration Unit
2.4. Field Survey
- 23 February–13 March 2023 (dry season);
- 8 August–26 September 2023 (rainy season);
- 27 February–15 March 2024 (dry season).
2.5. Iron and Manganese Oxidation through the Re-Aeration and Stirring of Treated Water
2.6. Filtration Experiment
2.7. Water Quality Analysis
2.8. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Physiochemical Water Quality of Raw and Treated Water
3.2. Iron and Manganese Oxidation through Stirring and Re-Aeration
3.3. Bench-Top Filtration Experiments on Raw Water
4. Discussion
4.1. Variations in Iron and Manganese in the Groundwater in the Study Area
4.2. Iron and Manganese Removal through Aeration–RSF in the WSPs
4.3. Improvement of Manganese Removal Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Different Filter Media
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
DBPs | Disinfection by-products |
PACl | Poly aluminum chloride |
MnO2 | Manganese oxide |
WTP | Water treatment plant |
Redox | Reduction–oxidation |
RSF | Rapid sand filter |
MOCA | Manganese-oxide-coated anthracite |
NDWQS | National Drinking Water Quality Standards, Nepal |
WUSA | Water Users and Sanitation Association |
RW | Raw water |
TW | Treated water |
GW | Groundwater |
TP | Treatment plant |
TDSs | Total dissolved solids |
DO | Dissolved oxygen |
ORP | Oxidation reduction potential |
SHE | Standard hydrogen electrode |
BDL | Below detection limit |
NaClO | Sodium hypochlorite |
Appendix A
Name of Urban Municipality | No. of WSPs | No. of WSPs with DTB as Main Source | No. of WSPs with GWTP | Selected WSPs (No. of DTBs) | Name of Selected WSPs | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dharan | 81 | 0 | 0 | 0 | WSP based on surface water | |
Duhabi | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 (5) | Duhabi | One WSP from each of five urban municipalities is selected |
Inaruwa | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 (4) | Inaruwa | |
Ramdhuni | 8 | 7 | 3 | 1 (2) | Jhumka | |
Baraha | 23 | 9 | 5 | 1 (3) | Mahendranagar | |
Itahari | 5 | 4 | 2 | 1 (2) | Pakali | |
Total | 119 | 22 | 12 | 5 (16) |
Water Supply Project | Water Source | Temperature (°C) | pH | Turbidity (NTU) | TDS (mg/L) | Eh (V) | Ferrous Iron (mg/L) | Total Iron (mg/L) | Soluble Manganese (mg/L) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Duhabi | GW 1 | 29.0 | 7.32 | 0.14 | 230 | 0.27 | 0.03 | 0.05 | 1.0 |
GW 2 | 29.0 | 7.44 | 0.33 | 215 | 0.18 | 0.04 | 0.39 | 0.8 | |
GW 3 | 28.0 | 7.34 | 0.32 | 244 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.44 | 1.3 | |
GW 4 | 28.0 | 7.85 | 0.27 | 238 | 0.27 | BDL | 0.09 | 1.0 | |
GW 5 | 28.0 | 7.44 | 0.34 | 238 | 0.24 | 0.05 | 0.21 | 1.1 | |
Inaruwa | GW 1 | 26.0 | 7.16 | 1.36 | 124 | 0.17 | 2.08 | 3.90 | 1.2 |
GW 2 | 27.0 | 6.66 | 0.31 | 136 | 0.20 | 4.32 | 4.68 | 1.4 | |
TW1 | 26.0 | 6.68 | 0.56 | 128 | 0.41 | BDL | 0.52 | 1.0 | |
GW 3 | 27.4 | 7.02 | 0.76 | 111 | 0.16 | 3.00 | 4.02 | 0.8 | |
GW 4 | 27.0 | 7.01 | 2.54 | 137 | 0.14 | 3.24 | 4.84 | 0.9 | |
TW2 | 28.0 | 6.72 | 0.16 | 107 | 0.37 | BDL | 0.50 | 0.7 | |
Jhumka | GW 1 | 26.8 | 6.85 | 3.07 | 228 | 0.18 | 4.22 | 4.54 | 1.1 |
TW1 | 26.1 | 6.99 | 0.32 | 191 | 0.43 | 0.87 | 0.99 | 0.6 | |
GW 2 | 28.0 | 7.10 | 2.60 | 207 | 0.26 | 0.26 | 0.31 | 0.9 | |
TW2 | 26.0 | 7.11 | 0.10 | 200 | 0.41 | BDL | 0.04 | 0.4 | |
Mahendranagar | GW 1 | 24.0 | 6.70 | 3.94 | 182 | 0.26 | 0.79 | 1.17 | 0.8 |
GW 3 | 26.0 | 6.69 | 0.23 | 173 | 0.29 | 0.70 | 0.70 | 1.5 | |
TW1 | 25.0 | 7.03 | 0.37 | 185 | 0.41 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 1.1 | |
GW 2 | 25.0 | 6.80 | 0.33 | 212 | 0.21 | 2.56 | 2.72 | 1.0 | |
Pakali | GW 1 | 24.0 | 6.95 | 0.72 | 183 | 0.23 | 0.17 | 0.24 | 0.9 |
TW1 | 25.0 | 7.69 | 0.34 | 185 | 0.30 | BDL | 0.06 | 0.5 | |
GW 2 | 26.0 | 7.03 | 11.70 | 216 | 0.18 | 1.02 | 1.30 | 1.4 | |
TW2 | 26.0 | 7.37 | 0.71 | 203 | 0.25 | BDL | 0.07 | 0.6 |
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WSP | Duhabi TP1/TP2 | Inaruwa | Jhumka TP1 | Mahendranagar TP1 | Pakali TP1/TP2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
TP1 | TP2 | |||||
Aeration Media | Not in operation | MnO2-coated pebbles | Pall rings | Pall rings | MnO2-coated pebbles | Pall rings |
Filtration Media | Manganese sand + Quartz sand | Quartz sand | Quartz sand | Quartz sand | Quartz sand | Quartz sand |
Water Quality Parameters | Jhumka | Inaruwa |
---|---|---|
pH | 7.60 | 7.45 |
Temperature (°C) | 24.0 | 25.3 |
Turbidity (NTU) | 3.57 | 30.28 |
Electrical conductivity (μS/cm) | 414 | 246 |
Ammonia (mg/L) | BDL (<0.02) | 0.06 |
Ferrous iron (mg/L) | 0.03 | 0.42 |
Total iron (mg/L) | 0.82 | 3.92 |
Manganese (mg/L) | 1.10 | 1.10 |
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Shrestha, A.M.; Kazama, S.; Sawangjang, B.; Takizawa, S. Improvement of Removal Rates for Iron and Manganese in Groundwater Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Manganese-Oxide-Coated Sand and Ceramic in Nepal. Water 2024, 16, 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172450
Shrestha AM, Kazama S, Sawangjang B, Takizawa S. Improvement of Removal Rates for Iron and Manganese in Groundwater Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Manganese-Oxide-Coated Sand and Ceramic in Nepal. Water. 2024; 16(17):2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172450
Chicago/Turabian StyleShrestha, Ankit Man, Shinobu Kazama, Benyapa Sawangjang, and Satoshi Takizawa. 2024. "Improvement of Removal Rates for Iron and Manganese in Groundwater Using Dual-Media Filters Filled with Manganese-Oxide-Coated Sand and Ceramic in Nepal" Water 16, no. 17: 2450. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16172450