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Article

Park Heritage of the Island of Krk between Urban Transformations and Climate Change

by
Koraljka Vahtar-Jurković
1,*,
Renata Sokol Jurković
2 and
Jadran Jurković
3
1
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Rijeka, Radmile Matejčić 3, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia
2
Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Horvatovac 95, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
3
Croatia Control Ltd., Rudolfa Fizira 2, 10410 Velika Gorica, Croatia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Land 2024, 13(7), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071024
Submission received: 9 June 2024 / Revised: 2 July 2024 / Accepted: 4 July 2024 / Published: 8 July 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Landscape Transformation vs. Heritage)
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Abstract

:
The island of Krk in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, Croatia, is also called the Golden Island because of its favorable geographical location, the diversity of natural and urban landscapes, the beauty of the coast and the sea, the wealth of tangible and intangible heritage, and especially because of the opportunities for living and working. During the last century and in this century, urban landscapes have been exposed to dramatic changes that transformed old castles or former smaller settlements of the local population into tourist centers and desirable places for permanent or temporary residence. A significant part of their complex structure is the cultural and historical heritage, within which the island’s park heritage has so far been insufficiently recognized and valued. Therefore, this paper examines forty selected public park spaces in the area of all local self-government units of the island of Krk in the context of urban transformations and climate change. It is concluded that the island’s park heritage has often been created as a result of urban transformations in which, despite being exposed to constant changes, it is mostly preserved, but that recently, new elements of this heritage are emerging. A new challenge is the threat of the consequences of climate change—increasingly frequent and long-lasting droughts, extreme precipitation and flash floods, stormy winds, rising sea level and salinization, which further emphasizes the need to preserve the park heritage of the island of Krk in the context of resistance to climate change.

1. Introduction

Urban landscapes are complex structures formed by numerous material and immaterial layers, among which the cultural and historical heritage is a very important component, exposed to continuous changes over time. Therefore, scientists, considering its role in this context, have developed several approaches. The “deep cities” approach perceives heritage of the urban landscapes as a resource for sustainable local development, by considering not only its historical dimension, but also social and economic ones [1,2]. Many authors agree that the solution for harmonizing urban development and protection of cultural heritage is integral management, which is proven to contribute to the sustainability of local communities, especially if the social and economic values of material heritage are recognized [3]. On the same track is Heritage Urbanism, an internationally recognized scientific approach, which contemplates the revitalization of cultural and historical heritage in a spatial, urban, and landscape context, in such a way that it becomes a driver of social and economic development and improves people’s living space [4]. Speaking of heritage and its transformations as a tourism resource, the analysis of different sources of literature indicates the connection of individual, local, and regional viewpoints, which creates an integral image and experience of future tourist values and perceptions. In the context of climate change, the concepts of ecological resilience and transformational continuity are considered in the scientific literature, while scenarios of heritage loss due to the effects of the climate change have been explored, trying to offer ways for people to deal with it, adapt to it, and accept it as a kind of a transformation offering opportunities [5].
According to the ICOMOS-IFLA [6], historic parks and gardens are considered as architecture in plant material and part of cultural landscapes, i.e., cultural heritage. The topic of this case study is the park heritage of the island of Krk situated in the Adriatic Sea, in the Republic of Croatia, which is very important not only as a tourist resource, but also for the local population [7]. Previous studies related to parks and climate change often refer to different locations around the world with significantly different climate conditions and meteorological phenomena, such as hurricanes, that are not comparable to the Mediterranean climate conditions. However, climate studies in general suggest that the effects of climate change will be especially visible in the Mediterranean, with islands being particularly sensitive [8]. Although there are a few studies in recent years dealing with the impact of climate change on infrastructure and objects significant for tourism purposes, e.g., [9,10], there is a lack of research of climate change influence on park heritage, while emphasizing the tourist destination’s image perspective and the issue of the destination’s loss of attractiveness due to damage to cultural heritage [11]. No examples of research that would examine climate change influence on park heritage were found for coastal tourist centers in the Mediterranean. Therefore, this work aims to fill the gap in this regard, considering that parks and promenades of coastal tourist places are of huge importance for the identity and image of the town, the ambient atmosphere, and character of the tourist place, for the impression of its maintenance and for the overall aesthetic impression. Furthermore, in its recommendations, ICOMOS-IFLA emphasizes that the study and understanding of the role of heritage in adaptation and mitigation of climate change should be encouraged based on different case studies, in order to improve the adaptive capacity [12]. Hence, this work is also contributing to Mediterranean park heritage research with the analysis of climate change risks. The main goal and purpose of this work is to contribute to the exchange of knowledge and experience to preserve the park heritage as a particularly vulnerable part of the entire cultural, historical, and natural heritage, especially in the Mediterranean area.
The main research question of this paper is as follows: What is the impact of urban transformations and climate change on the park heritage of the island of Krk? Given that the cultural and historical heritage should be viewed through its genesis and the changes it has been exposed to over time, this paper will consider how and under what influences the gardens and promenades on the island of Krk were created; what urban transformations they have been exposed to so far; what characterizes the contemporary urban development of island towns; and what urban transformations are taking place in this connection, as well as whether and how they affect the park heritage. Are new gardens emerging in recent times, and under what influences is this happening? Can they be considered as heritage for the future, that is, can urban transformations develop a new heritage? Furthermore, we will research which threats from climate change could affect each of the identified parks and promenades and, based on such an analysis, conclude which threat would be the most significant.
After the current Section 1, the study is organized as follows. In Section 2, previous research and relevant documents are described in some detail. Section 3 is a brief description of general features, settlement development, and climatic features of the island of Krk and data and methods, after which Section 4 provides a detailed description of the park heritage of the island of Krk, while the results of the analysis are presented in Section 5. Section 6 presents detailed discussion of all aspects of the study. Finally, the main conclusions are presented in Section 7.

2. Previous Research and Relevant Documents

2.1. Previous Research on the Park Heritage and the Climate of the Island Krk

Despite the fact that a large number of monographs [13,14,15,16,17,18] and scientific and professional articles [19] have been published about the island of Krk, dedicated to natural beauty, history, architectural heritage, and other elements of tangible and intangible cultural and historical heritage and the economy, especially tourism, they only mention the park heritage to a lesser extent. In connection with the topic of this work is the master’s thesis by Dobrila Kraljić about the impact of tourist development on the landscape of the island of Krk [20], but no works or publications were found in which the parks and promenades were dealt with in detail, either at the level of an individual place, municipality/town, or the island as a whole, except several popular articles [21,22] and professional papers of the mentioned author [23,24]. Sijerković wrote about the diversity of Krk’s climate [25], which was used in this paper as the main source of data on the climatic characteristics of the island of Krk. Some data, especially those about extraordinary events—extreme rainfall, stormy winds, and floods—were taken from another book by the same author [26] and other papers [27,28,29,30,31].

2.2. Relevant Documents Related to Climate Change

The fundamental document against climate change, as the main problem in environmental protection of the 21st century [6], is the United Nations Sustainable Development Program until 2030, adopted in 2015 with its 17 basic goals, among which are sustainable cities and sustainable communities [32], confirmed by The Paris Agreement on climate change [33] and elaborated by the United Nations document New Urban Agenda adopted in 2016 [34], which provides a global vision of future sustainable, resilient, safe, and inclusive cities and settlements. The European Commission adopted several strategic documents, such as The European Green Deal [35], The Urban Agenda for the European Union [36], The Territorial Agenda 2030 [37], The New Leipzig Charter [38], Declaration from Davos—Towards a high-quality building culture [39], and the New European Bauhaus [40]. At the level of the European Union bodies, the regulation on the restoration of nature is still being harmonized, which, in terms of urban development, calls for the establishment of monitoring of the state of green areas and the number of trees in cities, their preservation and gradual increase, and adaptation to climate change [41]. The Republic of Croatia adopted the strategy with solutions for overcoming the negative consequences of climate change [42] and program for development of green infrastructure in urban areas [43]. Primorje-Gorski Kotar County adopted the program on mitigation and adaptation to climate change [44].

2.3. Global Overview of the Role of Urban Parks in Mitigating the Effects of Climate Change

Numerous studies have been conducted around the world that have confirmed the positive effect of urban parks on mitigating the effect of urban heat islands, thus contributing to the social community as public city spaces [45,46,47,48,49]. Some articles proved that urban parks can also fulfill the function of water infrastructure for flood defence [50]. To find a solution, the action of the wider community and non-governmental organizations is needed, such as the American Trust for Public Land, which showed that parks are a key solution for dealing with the consequences of climate change in cities because they affect the improvement of air quality, mitigate the effect of heat islands, absorb large amounts of precipitation, protecting them from floods, and protect them from rising sea levels and coastal storms. It was also emphasized that parks not only protect the environment, but also strengthen the community’s social and economic resistance to climate change [51,52]. Adaptation to climate change in historic gardens is a special challenge. Bowie-Sell surveyed the leading gardeners at National Trust properties in the UK, and found that the most important thing for them is reliable information about climate conditions and about resistant plant species that would at the same time maintain the historic features of the garden [53].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. General Features, Settlement Development, and Climatic Features of the Island of Krk

The island of Krk in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, Croatia, is located in the northern part of the Kvarner Bay, closest to the mainland, with which it has been connected by the bridge Krčki Most since 1980. The island has an area of 405.78 km2 and 20,019 inhabitants living in 68 settlements [54] administratively divided into seven local self-government units: the Town of Krk and the municipalities of Baška, Dobrinj, Malinska-Dubašnica, Omišalj, Punat, and Vrbnik (Figure 1). Along with industry and port terminals for oil and gas in the northern part of the island, as well as construction and agriculture, the most important economic branch is tourism. The island is also distinguished by its landscape diversity—from bare areas on the eastern and southern parts of the island to areas covered by autochthonous phytocenological communities of the sub-Mediterranean downy oak (Quercus pubescens) forest and fertile fields in the area of Vrbnik and in the municipality of Omišalj. The relief is also very dynamic, with flat parts and fields and hills and the highest peak Obzova at 570 m a.s.l. Its coast with numerous bays has a total length of about 190 km2 [55].
The development of the settlement on the island of Krk was influenced by natural and geographical characteristics, among which the shape of the island, relief, geological structure, altitude, and climate are particularly important, and exposure to strong winds as the most important of the climatic factors. For this reason, the majority of settlements (88%) are located in the central part of the island, at an altitude of up to 100 m a.s.l., in an area protected from the direct impact of the strongest gale force wind [56]. A little over a hundred years ago, a large number of the local population lived very modestly from seafaring, shipbuilding, agriculture, livestock, and fishing, mainly for their own needs, which resulted in emigration, mainly to America. In the decades after the Second World War, in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, there was a strong development of tourism. Under the influence of these social and economic circumstances, old castles and former smaller settlements of the local population were transformed into tourist centers and desirable places of permanent or temporary residence, so that the island of Krk, with its growing population, is an exception among Croatian islands affected by depopulation [56,57].
The island has a moderate and mild climate which is, according to Koeppen’s classification, a moderately warm and rainy climate (Cfsax); according to Thornthwaite’s classification, it is a humid climate, which means enough water for plants throughout the year, except for midsummer—in July and August [25,58]. The mean air temperature on the island of Krk is 14.9 °C and the average amount of precipitation is 1208.6 mm [25]. Long-term monitoring of precipitation on the island of Krk shows that the minimum amount of rain falls in July, and the maximum in November [25,58]. The wind rose for the island of Krk shows that winds blow there from all four quadrants [25], and by frequency, the most significant are bora, sirocco, and mistral [26].
Climate projections show that in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, an increase in air temperature along with a decrease in precipitation will lead to an increase in the intensity and length of drought periods, an increase in evapotranspiration, and a decrease in water supplies. An increase in the intensity of short-term heavy precipitation will cause an increase in the risk of floods and soil erosion. Climate change will be most pronounced in the summer, especially on the islands, among which the island of Krk stands out. The greatest negative impact is considered to be an increase in the sea level, and among the most threatened urban areas are the island of Krk and the town of Krk, as well as other coastal towns [44].

3.2. Data and Methods

The basis for presenting the current situation is the orthophoto map available on the Geoportal of the State Geodetic Administration [59] and data from the ArcGIS 10.6 of the Institute for Spatial Planning of the Primorje-Gorski Kotar County [60]. Based on these data, graphic representations of the location of the island of Krk and all parks and promenades considered in this work were made (Figure 1, Figure 2 and Figure 3). On these maps, the construction areas of the settlement are marked in accordance with the spatial plans, transferred from ArcGIS, and the locations of public city parks, forest parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades determined by the field visit, where each of these four categories is marked with a different color and number, which corresponds to that from Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3.
Selected examples of parks and promenades of the island of Krk were considered in terms of urban transformations based on data on the year or period of their arrangement, according to the entities that gave the initiative for their establishment and to the previous land use. To determine when they were created, the available literature was analyzed—books, scientific and professional papers, articles, internet sources, as well as cadastral maps [61], orthophoto maps and data from ArcGIS. The bearers of the initiatives by which the parks and promenades were arranged were determined by a review of scientific and expert articles, especially scientific monographs on the development of tourism in certain places, published in the first and second decades of this century on the occasion of centenary celebrations [13,14,15]. The previous land use was determined by looking at the topographic and cadastral maps, as well as literature, where older photos and postcards were particularly useful. Due to the breadth of the topic and the extensiveness of the article itself, the process of valorization of parks and promenades was not carried out, and socio-economic aspects were not considered in detail.
The certainty that the aforementioned general characteristics of climate change in Croatia [42] and in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County [44] are valid for the island of Krk is also confirmed by the fact that they have already been recorded on the island [28]. Due to the increase in air temperature in the last two decades, even changes in sunny and rainy days and usual changes in wind direction have become increasingly absent, instead of which longer dry periods are recorded, followed by sudden extreme amounts of precipitation in a short period that cause flash floods, all accompanied by stormy winds, especially during summer storms [25,26]. In the 21st century, there were several months in which no rain fell at all (for example, in Krk in July 2003, April 2007, March 2012, and December 2015, and in Omišalj in April 2007) [25]. Extreme amounts of rain and flooding have been recorded in recent years, especially in Malinska, Krk, Punat, and Baška (for example, 26 December 2021 [29], 18 November 2022 [30], 3 November 2023 [31], etc.). For the vegetation cover in general, and then for the vegetation base of the parks, it is more favorable if the same amount of precipitation was distributed as evenly as possible, rather than large amounts of rain falling in a short period [62] (when it could produce even strong erosion (e.g., Krk [63]). The negative impact of strong wind, especially gales, on plant cover is manifested not only in the wind pressure on the plant, which can cause trees to have bent trunks and unevenly developed crowns [64], but also in the harmful effect of salt, drying of the substrate—soil and aeolian erosion, whereby larger soil particles carried by the wind can further damage plants [25]. As potential threats to park heritage due to climate change, drought, extreme amounts of precipitation in a short period of time, resulting in flash floods, stormy winds, and rising sea level are recognized [27].

4. The Park Heritage of the Island of Krk

The park heritage of the island of Krk considered in this paper includes forty selected examples listed in Table 1 and classified into four typological categories: nineteen public town parks, three forest parks, nine hotel and camping parks, and nine promenades. For each example, it is indicated in which town and local government unit it is located, and its location is briefly described and shown on the map.
Due to the large number of such spaces, the authors are mainly focused on the presentation of the public parks and promenades of the central settlements of certain municipalities, i.e., the Town of Krk, with the exception of the municipality of Omišalj, where the selection also includes the parks around the hotel and the camp in Njivice, as since the 1980s, they have had a higher tourist significance than Omišalj, where tourism has lost its importance due to the development of industry. The selection was made based on the criteria of the time of origin; significance for a particular period of settlement development; importance for the tourism development of the place; and especially the importance that each park area has for the image of the town and its recognition. It should be noted that none of the selected parks are officially protected, except for the Košljun Forest Park, which is protected under the Nature Protection Act in the category of a special reserve of forest vegetation [65].
Starting from the premise that we should not only maintain what we have inherited from earlier periods, but that this century should also create new parks that we will leave heritage to future generations, the selection of presented parks included the examples from the second half of the 19th century to 2022. Four parks established in the 21st century (Table 1, No. 3, 7, 19, 24) are as follows. The Pope John Paul II Memorial Park was built to commemorate his first visit to the island of Krk and high-quality design of the park reflects and symbolizes the spread of the Pope’s noble messages in the world. Roof garden DUBoak is included because it is part of the very successful and award-winning architectural project of the DUBoak Maritime Heritage Interpretation Centre. The uniqueness of Glagolitic Park in Gabonjin is that the park is dedicated to the Glagolitic script as the oldest Slavic script. The park is also special because it is not dominated by plant elements, but by stone elements with special meanings and messages. The park in the camp in the Vodotoč Bay near Omišalj is a valuable architectural and landscape achievement in its category. It was realized by the maximum use of the existing vegetation and adaptation to the surrounding area.
Most of the public town parks are small or very small in area (approx. 1000 m2 or less), but their importance should be seen in regards to the settlements themselves, which are also small (according to the 2021 census, the population of Omišalj was 1877, Njivice 1115, Malinska 816, Krk 3935, Punat 1784, Baška 899, Vrbnik 887, and Dobrinj 89) [51]. Seven public town parks have an area of less than 1000 m2 (in Table 1, No. 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 16, and 19), eight of them have an area of approximately 1000 m2 (in Table 1, No. 2, 7, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 18), three have an area of 1000–2000 m2 (in Table 1, No. 3, 9, and 17), and only Park Dubec (in Table 1, No. 1) has an area of approximately 18,000 m2. Forest parks are larger—Ogreni approximately 4000 m2, Dražica 12,709 m2, and Košljun 6 ha. Five hotel/camping parks have an area of less than 10 ha (in Table 1, No. 23, 24, 27, 29, and 31), and four larger than 10 ha (in Table 1, No. 25, 26, 28, and 30).
All parks are publicly accessible, they are not fenced, and there are no entrance fees for visiting them. The specificity of hotel/camping parks is that, although they are also publicly accessible, they are used mainly by their guests.
Public city parks, forest parks, and promenades are under the management of town utility companies, with the exception of the protected Košljun Forest Park, which is managed by the “Priroda” Public Institution for management of protected nature areas in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County. Parks of hotels and campsites are maintained by their owners.
Regardless of the location, all the elements of park architecture on the island of Krk considered in this paper had a decisive influence on the present-day image of the settlement (Figure 4), with additional recognition given by plant species that are typical for certain places, for example, mulberries for Omišalj; pines, Aleppo pine, cypresses, and cedars for Malinska; nettle trees for Krk and Vrbnik; holm oaks for Punat; pittosporums for Baška; and wild chestnut and plane trees for Dobrinj [21].

5. Results

The results of the research on the park heritage of the island of Krk are analyzed in two subchapters: in the context of urban transformations and in the context of climate change.

5.1. Park Heritage of the Island of Krk in the Context of Urban Transformations

Information about the year or period of arrangement of parks and promenades on the island of Krk, entities by whose initiative they were founded, and the previous land use are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 shows that two public parks were created in the second half of the 19th century; five public town parks, two forest parks, one hotel park, and three promenades were created in the first half of the 20th century; nine public town parks, one forest park, seven hotel/camping parks, and six promenades were created in the second half of the 20th century; and three public town parks and one camping park were created in the 21st century.
Four parks were arranged at the initiative of the local authorities; two parks at the initiative of societies for the beautification; one park, one forest park, and one promenade at the initiative of local bathing commissions; and four promenades at the initiative of tourist associations. Various institutions related to tourism are mentioned because they have changed from the end of the 19th century to the present day, but their activities have always included concern for the arrangement of places, especially for the arrangement of parks and promenades [14,66]. In cooperation with local authorities and the Diocese of Krk, two parks were arranged, in cooperation with local authorities and tourist boards, two rows of park plantations in Malinska, and two promenades, and in cooperation with local authorities and tourist associations, eight parks and two promenades were arranged. Investors of hotels and campsites have arranged nine parks belonging to them. The Franciscan friars arranged the forest park Košljun. The Glagolitic Park in Gabonjin was arranged at the initiative of an individual—Cvetko Ušalj, founder of the Small School of Glagolitic and Ethno Workshop, as part of which, with the help of the locals, in addition to this Glagolitic Park, he arranged the Glagolitic Path [67].
Regarding the previous use of the space, it should be said that three public town parks were arranged on the site of previous cemeteries, one on a fenced area next to a church with a lookout point, and one forest park in a monastery garden. Two of them are arranged on steep slopes, two on unkempt space with a water source in the center of the settlement, one in a grassy valley with a stream source, and one garden on the roof of a building built on a part of the former city park. Pope John Paul II Memorial Park was arranged on the unkempt area along the state road. Most of the parks and promenades, 28 of them, have been arranged on undeveloped and unkempt areas along the coast or on higher areas with a nice view. Different descriptions in the last column of Table 3 are listed depending on the time of the park’s creation and the development of the surrounding area.

5.2. Park Heritage of the Island of Krk in the Context of Climate Change

Assessment results of the threats caused by climate change are shown in Table 3. For example, for the threat of drought, a “−” was generally written for the parks and promenades where there is an irrigation system and a “+” where such systems do not exist. However, it should be noted that when assessing the threat, local features were also considered, such as the existence of natural water sources at the location or the inflow of water from the surrounding higher areas and its exposure to insolation. In this way, it was assessed, for example, that for Park Ogreni in the municipality of Dobrinj, although no irrigation system has been implemented there, there is no danger of drought because it is a shady valley (Figure 2, Dobrinj) with a water source. In the course of the field tour, during the evaluation of the risk of drought, plant species resistant to drought planted in the parks were also taken into consideration.
To assess the risk of extreme amounts of precipitation in a short period and flash floods, a “+” is entered in the table where, due to the morphology of the terrain, erosion caused by flash floods can be expected in parks/promenades arranged on slopes—Park Dubec in Omišalj and Park Marjan in Baška; promenades on the slopes in Baška and Vrbnik (Figure 2, Omišalj, Baška, Vrbnik); and at those coastal parks and promenades along the coast where, due to the inflow of torrents from the surrounding steeper area, one can expect such a large amount of water that the soil would not be able to absorb it, especially if it is loamy, less permeable ground.
Due to its geographical position (Figure 1), the island of Krk is exposed to the wind, so the threat to vegetation from stormy winds and wind gusts has been assessed for most parks and promenades, especially for those exposed to bora (NE) as the strongest wind that blows on the island of Krk. It should be emphasized that strong wind gusts from the south—sirocco (SE)—have also been recorded recently, and during summer storms, the western part of the island is exposed to strong tramontane (N-NW) [25,26]. The threat of stormy winds was determined based on the characteristics of the location of an individual park, i.e., the exposure of the town where the park is located to the wind from a specific quadrant with regard to its geographical position, and the exposure of the park itself to that wind direction, taking into account the characteristics of the micro-location (terrain shape, altitude, surrounding built structures).
The threat of sea level rise was assessed in relation to their current position in relation to sea level, for parks and promenades located along lower coasts and by comparison with the coastline vulnerability map [68]. According to official documents in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, a sea level rise of 62 ± 14 cm is expected by the end of this century [44]. The occurrence of simultaneous tidal waves and extremely large amounts of rain in a short time, which leads to flooding of the waterfront, is particularly dangerous. Such occurrences threaten all built structures along the coast, including coastal parks and promenades that become submerged. It should be emphasized that, more often, such occurrences could threaten the plant base of the parks through salinization. The endangerment of parks and promenades located along the coast, especially those in the area of Omišalj, Malinska, Krk, Punat, and Baška, is mainly due to the rise in sea level, which was also confirmed in the previous study, in which the coastal vulnerability index consists of several partial sub-indices considering the geological structure, coastal slope, coastal inundation, impact of storms, and wave action. An inspection of the cartographic representations for the area of the island of Krk shows that the coastal vulnerability index is high (4), and the vulnerability from coastal flooding (Figure 5) is very high (5) [68].
Table 3 shows that six out of forty parks and promenades are potentially threatened by drought, or 15%. The threat due to an extreme amount of precipitation in a short time and flash floods was determined for 15, or 37.5%, of them. Danger from stormy winds is a potential danger for 36 parks and promenades, which is 90%. Due to the estimated sea level rise, 13 coastal parks and promenades, or 32.5%, would be threatened.

6. Discussion

6.1. The Park Heritage of the Island of Krk in the Context of Urban Transformations

In Table 2, the data on the use of land before the development of the parks indicate the urban transformations that resulted in their development.
One of the earliest transformations of that kind was the repositioning of former cemeteries, which used to be located next to the churches in the settlements. Thus, the first cemetery in Omišalj was next to the church in the center of the old town until 1818, when, based on the decision of the then-Austrian authorities to ban burials next to churches and within the settlement, it was moved to the church of St. Nicholas (in folk speech, Sv. Mikul), which was outside the town at the time. With the further expansion of the town, it became a part of the settlement, so in 1914, the cemetery was again moved to a sufficiently distant new location near the chapel of The Holy Spirit, and in 1975, a park was arranged on that spot [16]. In Vrbnik, until 1956, the local cemetery was located next to the ancient church of St. John the Baptist [17], and in the 1970s, a small park was arranged there. In Dobrinj, next to the bell tower, on the site of the former cemetery, which moved to its current location in 1855 [18], a small park was arranged, which the locals call simply Jardin, and which was recently given the official name Park of Croatian Veterans.
Three parks are arranged around water sources—Jaz in Malinska and Krušija in Krk [69], which were previously local laundry facilities, and Park Ogreni around the source of the Dobrinj stream, which was arranged during the construction of the local water supply.
Most of the parks and promenades were arranged on undeveloped and unkempt areas, often by afforestation of bare areas (Park Dubec in Omišalj, Paradise path and promenade towards Kozica Bay in Vrbnik, and promenade towards St. John and the Path of the Moon in Baška). In the first decades of the last century, with the beginnings of the development of tourism, the park development of the coastal areas of Malinska, Krk, and Baška began. Nevertheless, the largest number of public city parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades were arranged on undeveloped and unorganized areas by the sea in the second half of the 20th century, during the period of the strongest development of tourism.
Recent transformations have resulted in four new parks. The location of today’s Pope John Paul II Memorial Park used to be undeveloped natural land next to the island’s main road, whose route, until the 1980s, turned from the main north–south direction to the west and passed through Omišalj. Then, for the needs of the construction of the petrochemical industry, its extension was built to the exit to the main road again. According to urban plans, along this direction, business zones were built, and next to the roundabout where the road diverges to the center of Omišalj, a park with a monument of the Pope was built in a prominent place so that as many passers-by as possible could see it [70]. In the area of Omišalj, in the Vodotoč Bay, a new camp with a landscaped park was recently built. The Maritime Heritage Interpretation Centre DUBoak in Malinska was built on part of the former park with a Mediterranean roof garden and a square in front of the Centre. Although roof gardens are not a tradition of our region, we cannot but agree that, like the unusual architectural achievement of the Centre building itself, this roof garden rising from the parterre is attractive and brings a new quality to the center of the place. The Glagolitic Park was also arranged in the outskirts of Gabonjin on previously unorganized and undeveloped land.
During the first two decades of the 21st century, and especially after Croatia became a member of the European Union, interest in the construction of new and reconstruction of existing properties for tourist purposes increased, especially on the coast where apartment houses predominate. Such properties are surrounded by gardens, in accordance with the provisions of spatial plans, which require that at least 40% of the plot area be covered with landscaped greenery. Recent urban transformations mostly did not affect the parks and promenades covered in this paper, primarily due to the fact that they are registered in spatial plans as public green areas; thus, they are protected from other forms of construction. All local self-government units are aware of the importance of the orderliness of places, especially public parks and promenades, and invest in their maintenance. In addition to legal obligations, the fact that it is part of the local community’s culture also affects the arrangement of green areas. At the end of each tourist season, the most beautifully decorated tourist spots are selected at the national level, and the town of Krk has won such a title several times. The local population supports the arrangement of public parks and promenades, which they perceive as part of their social space. The local community participates in the processes of arrangement and development of parks and promenades through public hearings in the process of adopting spatial plans and through its representatives in municipal councils and tourist boards, and in recent years, the tradition of establishing Societies for the Beautification of Places as citizens’ associations has been revived.
Recently, some areas are experiencing renewed transformations. For example, as part of the decision to gradually renovate the entire coastal area of Malinska, in recent decades, more public spaces have been redecorated on the western side of the root of the harbor. Park Marjan in Baška and forest park Dražica in Krk were also renovated. The first transformation of the area of Haludovo resulted in the creation of a park by afforestation of bare land [71], and the second led to the abandonment and complete devastation of the buildings, while the park flourished and reached its full maturity. According to our opinion, an example of a failed transformation is the recent reshaping of the park near the chapel of St. John in Vrbnik with the introduction of inappropriate elements such as the so-called smart benches and a pool with a fountain, but without the established necessary conservation conditions.
Urban transformations also led to the disappearance of certain elements of park architecture or in connection with it. For example, the nursery in the center of Malinska was established in 1936–1938 and operated until the 1960s, and in the 1980s, a parking lot and a market were arranged there. Promenade Ljubavna cesta, built in the 1930s in the Kricin area of Baška, which is now a street leading to the nudist beach and next to which villas were built, has disappeared due to the construction of a residential street. During the last decade, some of the pine trees along the promenade Rajska cesta in Vrbnik were also removed for the reconstruction of residential streets and the construction of buildings according to the program of encouraged housing construction.
All of the above, according to the authors, confirms that urban transformation modifies the existing heritage (either positively or negatively), but also that urban transformation can create and develop new heritage.

6.2. The Park Heritage of the Island of Krk in the Context of Climate Change

Considering the recognized four types of potential threats as a result of climate change, the percentages of exposure of individual parks and promenades to the threats of drought, extreme amounts of precipitation in a short time and flash floods, stormy winds, and rising sea levels were compared, which determined that the most significant threat is from stormy wind (51.4%), followed by extreme rainfall in a short period of time and flash floods (21.4%), then rising sea levels (18.6%), and the least pronounced potential danger was drought (8.6%), primarily due to the irrigation systems already implemented earlier and appropriate drought-resistant plant species (Figure 6). This analysis led to the interesting conclusion that the most significant threat to the parks and promenades of the island of Krk is not sea level rise, which is generally considered the most significant threat, but stormy winds.
Finally, the advantages of parks and promenades in the context of climate change, which have a defensive function in relation to built-up parts of the settlement [6], and the fact that these are areas where the average temperature is a whole degree lower than those in built-up parts of the settlement, should be highlighted [72], so they are desirable places to stay and rest from the summer heat, which is why their preservation and protection is extremely important not only for the local population, but for tourists, too. This is on the trail of all recent European and national documents related to green infrastructure and resistance to climate change, where the green infrastructure to which the park heritage belongs has a special role and significance. Observing the parks and promenades of the island of Krk in this context, some similar examples in the world and in Croatia were analyzed, and it was determined that, as aforementioned, numerous scientific and professional articles highlight the importance of parks in strengthening resistance to climate change, namely by reducing the impact of urban heat islands, with an emphasis on the dependence of this influence on the size of the parks, the type of vegetation planted in them, and the existence of the irrigation system [51,73,74]; by absorbing a large amount of precipitation and preventing flash floods, calling them “natural sponges that absorb stormwater” [51]; and by affecting air circulation and mitigating the effect of strong winds [74]. At the same time, parks strengthen the local community’s resistance to climate change, and have great aesthetic, social, and economic value [51,75,76], which is why the role of landscape architects is highlighted not only in design settlements, but also in the fight against the consequences of climate change [77].

7. Conclusions

The park heritage of the island of Krk presented in this paper was created as a result of urban development and transformations, to the greatest extent due to the development of tourism, which transformed the former castles and smaller settlements of the local population into tourist centers. Despite being exposed to constant changes, the park heritage mostly managed to be preserved, and recently, new elements of that heritage are emerging, which confirms that urban transformation transforms heritage, but also that urban transformation can create and develop new heritage. A new challenge to the preservation of the park heritage of the island of Krk is the threat of the consequences of climate change—increasingly frequent and long-lasting droughts followed by storms with extreme amounts of precipitation and strong wind, sea level rise and salinization. On the other hand, parks and promenades, as part of the overall green infrastructure, represent an important factor in the context of climate change resistance, which even more emphasizes the need and obligation of their preservation and protection.
The results of this research could be used in urban planning, tourism development strategies, local action plans against climate change, and in the management and maintenance of parks and other green areas on the island of Krk, and as an example of practice in other similar areas in the Mediterranean area. This research could also serve as a background for further research of the valorization of parks and promenades in general, and their socio-economic impact on the broader society.

Author Contributions

Conceptualisation, K.V.-J.; Data curation, K.V.-J.; Formal analysis, K.V.-J.; Investigation, K.V.-J.; Methodology, K.V.-J. and R.S.J.; Resources, K.V.-J., R.S.J. and J.J.; Validation, K.V.-J., R.S.J. and J.J.; Visualisation, K.V.-J.; Writing—original draft preparation, K.V.-J.; Writing—review and editing, K.V.-J., R.S.J. and J.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Jasna Doričić and Dado Jakupović for their help with the technical preparation of cartographic representations.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Jadran Jurković was employed by the company Croatia Control Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. The island of Krk and its location in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, Croatia (map created in ArcGIS 10.6).
Figure 1. The island of Krk and its location in Primorje-Gorski Kotar County, Croatia (map created in ArcGIS 10.6).
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Figure 2. Location of the public town parks, forest parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades in settlements of the island of Krk (maps created in ArcGIS 10.6).
Figure 2. Location of the public town parks, forest parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades in settlements of the island of Krk (maps created in ArcGIS 10.6).
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Figure 3. Public parks, forest parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades on the island of Krk (map created in ArcGIS 10.6).
Figure 3. Public parks, forest parks, hotel/camping parks, and promenades on the island of Krk (map created in ArcGIS 10.6).
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Figure 4. Some public town parks, forest parks, parks of hotels, and promenades of the island of Krk. (photos by K. Vahtar-Jurković, except Roof park DUBoak, Copyright 2024, Copyright Maritime Heritage Interpretation Center DUBoak).
Figure 4. Some public town parks, forest parks, parks of hotels, and promenades of the island of Krk. (photos by K. Vahtar-Jurković, except Roof park DUBoak, Copyright 2024, Copyright Maritime Heritage Interpretation Center DUBoak).
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Figure 5. Threat map of the coastal area of the island of Krk due to coastal flooding (Adapted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2024, copyright Assoc.Prof. Igor Ružić, PhD).
Figure 5. Threat map of the coastal area of the island of Krk due to coastal flooding (Adapted with permission from Ref. [68]. Copyright 2024, copyright Assoc.Prof. Igor Ružić, PhD).
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Figure 6. Threats on the parks/promenades of the island of Krk from the consequences of climate change.
Figure 6. Threats on the parks/promenades of the island of Krk from the consequences of climate change.
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Table 1. Overview of the park heritage of the island of Krk.
Table 1. Overview of the park heritage of the island of Krk.
No.Park/PromenadeTypological CategoryTown or
Municipality/Settlement		Location
1.Park Dubecpublic town parkOmišalj/
Omišalj		the northern slope between the historic core and the sea
2.Saint Nicholas Memorial Park (Spomen-park sv. Mikul)public town parkOmišalj/
Omišalj		in the center of the town
3.Pope John Paul II Memorial Park (Spomen-park Pape Ivana Pavla II) public town parkOmišalj/
Omišalj		edge part of the town, east of the settlement
4.Park Jazpublic town parkMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		in the center of the town, at the bottom of the old port
5.a series of parks along the coastal promenadepublic town parksMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		in the center of the town, north of the of the root of the port
6.park areas along the coastal promenadepublic town parkMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		in the center of the town, west of the of the root of the port
7.roof garden DUBoakpublic town parkMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		in the center of the town
8.Park Kamplin public town parkKrk/Krk in the historic core of the town
9.Big Park (Veli park)public town parkKrk/Krkin the center of the town, by the sea coast
10.Krušijapublic town parkKrk/Krkin the center of the town, by the sea coast
11.Little Park (Mali park)public town parkKrk/Krkin the center of the town
12.Victims of the First World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama I. svjetskog rata)public town parkPunat/Punatin the center of the town, by the sea coast
13.Victims of the Second World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama II. svjetskog rata)public town parkPunat/Punatin the center of the town, by the sea coast
14.Victims of the Homeland War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama Domovinskog rata)public town parkPunat/Punatin the center of the town, by the sea coast
15.Park Marjanpublic town parkBaška/Baškain the center of the town, by the sea coast
16.St. John Park (Park sv. Ivan)public town parkVrbnik/Vrbnikin the center of the town, outside historic core
17.Our Lady’s Park (Park Gospoja) public town parkVrbnik/Vrbnikoutside the historic core
18.Park of Croatian veterans (Park hrvatskih branitelja—Jardin)public town parkDobrinj/
Dobrinj		in the center of the town
19.Glagolitic Park (Park glagoljice)public town parkDobrinj/
Gabonjin		in the outskirts of the settlement
20.Park Ogreniforest park Dobrinjoutside the village, along the road to Šilo
21.Forest park Dražicaforest parkKrk/Krkin the tourist zone
22.Forest park Košljunforest parkKrkon the islet in Puntarska Draga
23.park around hotel Adriatic hotel parkOmišalj/
Omišalj		along the coast, north of the historic core
24.camping park Omišaljcamping parkOmišaljoutside the town, in Vodotoč Bay
25.hotel and camping park in Njivicehotel and camping parkOmišalj/Njivice along the coast, north of the settlement
26.Park Haludovohotel parkMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		along the coast, north of the settlement
27.park areas around the Draga beach and the hotel Malin hotel parkMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		along the coast, west of the settlement
28.park areas around hotels Dražica, Koralj, Bor and Tamarishotel parkKrk/Krkalong the coast, east of the town center
29.camping park Ježevaccamping parkKrk/Krkalong the coast, west of the town center
30.park areas around hotel Parkhotel parkPunat/Punatin the center of the town, along the coast
31.park areas around hotelshotel parkBaška/Baškawest of the town center
32.plantations along the coastal promenadepromenadeOmišalj/
Omišalj		north of historic core
33.plantations along the coastal promenadepromenadeOmišalj/
Njivice		north and south of the town center
34.Paradise path (Rajska cesta)promenadeMalinska-Dubašnica/
Malinska		north of the town center
35.plantations along the coastal promenadepromenadePunat/Punateast of the town center
36.plantations along the coastal promenadepromenadeBaška/Baškaalong the coast and the main beach
37.promenade towards St. John promenadeBaška/Baškaeast of the settlement
38.Path of the Moon (Put mjeseca)promenadeBaškaeast of the settlement
39.Paradise path (Rajski put) promenadeVrbnik/Vrbnikwest of the settlement
40.promenade towards Kozica BaypromenadeVrbniksoutheast of the settlement
Table 2. Time of establishment, the initiative for the arrangement of the parks and promenades, and former purpose of space.
Table 2. Time of establishment, the initiative for the arrangement of the parks and promenades, and former purpose of space.
No.Park/PromenadeTime of EstablishmentThe Initiative for the ArrangementFormer Purpose of Space
1.Park Dubec1925–1928Society for the Beautification of the Place Omišaljunkempt bare rock
2.Saint Nicholas Memorial Park (Spomen-park sv. Mikul)1975 Local authorities former cemetery
3.Pope John Paul II
Memorial Park (Spomen-park Pape Ivana Pavla II) 		2014Seven local self-government units of the Island of Krk and Diocese of Krkundeveloped area along the state road
4.Park Jaz1938Local Bathing Commissionunkempt space near the coast with a water source
5.a series of parks along the coastal promenade1938Local authorities and Tourist boardundeveloped spaces along the coast
6.park areas along the coastal promenade1938Local authorities
and Tourist board		undeveloped spaces along the coast
7.roof garden DUBoak2022Local authoritiespublic town park
8.Park Kamplin 1864then municipality and the Diocese of Krkunkempt green area next to the city walls
9.Big Park (Veli park)1900Society for the Beautification of the Town of Krkundeveloped area outside the city walls
10.Krušija1970sLocal authorities and Tourist Associationunkempt space near the coast with a water source
11.Little Park (Mali park)1980sLocal authorities and Tourist Associationunorganized space in the center of the town
12.Victims of the First World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama I. svjetskog rata)1960s–1970sLocal authorities and Tourist Associationunorganized space along the coast
13.Victims of the Second World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama II. svjetskog rata)1960s–1970sLocal authorities and Tourist Associationunorganized space along the coast
14.Victims of the Homeland War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama Domovinskog rata)1960s–1970sLocal authorities and Tourist Associationunorganized space along the coast
15.Park Marjanabout 1955 Local authorities and Tourist Associationunkempt slope near the sea
16.St. John Park
(Park sv. Ivan)		1971Local authorities and Tourist Associationformer cemetery
17.Our Lady’s Park (Park Gospoja) 1994Local authorities and Tourist Associationa fenced area next to the church with a lookout point
18.Park of Croatian veterans (Park hrvatskih branitelja—Jardin)second half of the 19th centuryLocal authorities former cemetery
19.Glagolitic Park
(Park glagoljice) 		2010Cvetko Ušaljundeveloped area next to the state road
20.Park Ogreni first half of the 20th centuryLocal authoritiesa grassy valley with the source of the Dobrinj stream
21.Forest park Dražica1920sLocal Bathing Commissionunorganized green area
22.Forest park Košljun1969Franciscan friarsmonastery garden
23.park around hotel Adriatic 1960sHotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
24.camping park Omišalj2018Camp investorsundeveloped area by the sea
25.hotel and camping park in Njivice1970sHotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
26.Park Haludovo1970–1973Hotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
27.park areas around the Draga beach and the Malin hotel1936Hotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
28.park areas around hotels Dražica, Koralj, Bor and Tamaris1970s–1980sHotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
29.camping park Ježevac1970sCamp investorsundeveloped area by the sea
30.park areas around hotel Park1960s–1970sHotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
31.park areas around hotels1970–1990Hotel investorsundeveloped area by the sea
32.plantations along the castal promenade1960sTourist associationundeveloped area by the sea
33.plantations along the coastal promenade1960sTourist associationundeveloped area by the sea
34.Paradise path (Rajska cesta)1930sLocal Bathing Commissionundeveloped area by the sea
35.plantations along the coastal promenade1970sTourist associationundeveloped area by the sea
36.plantations along the coastal promenade1960s–1970sTourist associationundeveloped area by the sea
37.promenade towards St. John 1938Local authorities
and Tourist Board		undeveloped and unkempt area
38.Path of the Moon
(Put mjeseca)		1940sLocal authorities and Tourist Boardundeveloped and unkempt area above settlement
39.Paradise path (Rajski put) 1950sLocal authorities and Tourist associationundeveloped and unkempt area
40.Promenade towards Kozica Bay1950sLocal authorities and Tourist associationundeveloped and unkempt area
Table 3. Threats to parks/promenades as a result of climate change.
Table 3. Threats to parks/promenades as a result of climate change.
No.Park/PromenadeThreat of DroughtThreat of Extreme Precipitation and Flash FloodsThreat of Stormy Wind (Bora, Sirocco, and Tramontane)Threat of Sea Level Rise
1.Park Dubec−++−
2.Saint Nicholas Memorial Park (Spomen-park sv. Mikul)−−+−
3.Pope John Paul II
Memorial Park (Spomen-park Pape Ivana Pavla II) 		−−+−
4.Park Jaz−+−+
5.a series of parks along the coastal promenade−+++
6.park areas along the coastal promenade−+++
7.roof garden DUBoak−−+−
8.Park Kamplin −−+−
9.Big Park (Veli park)−+++
10.Krušija−+++
11.Little Park (Mali park)−+−−
12.Victims of the First World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama I. svjetskog rata)−+++
13.Victims of the Second World War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama II. svjetskog rata)−+++
14.Victims of the Homeland War Memorial Park (Spomen-park žrtvama Domovinskog rata)−+++
15.Park Marjan−++−
16.St. John Park
(Park sv. Ivan)		−−+−
17.Our Lady’s Park (Park Gospoja) −−+−
18.Park of Croatian veterans (Park hrvatskih branitelja—Jardin)−−+−
19.Glagolitic Park
(Park glagoljice) 		−−−−
20.Park Ogreni −+−−
21.Forest park Dražica−−+−
22.Forest park Košljun−−++
23.park around hotel Adriatic −−+−
24.camping park Omišalj−++−
25.hotel and camping park in Njivice −−+−
26.Park Haludovo−−+−
27.park areas around the Draga beach and the Malin hotel−−+−
28.park areas around hotels Dražica, Koralj, Bor and Tamaris−−+−
29.camping park Ježevac−−+−
30.park areas around hotel Park−−++
31.park areas around hotels−+++
32.plantations along the coastal promenade+++−
33.plantations along the coastal promenade−−+−
34.Paradise path (Rajska cesta)+−+−
35.plantations along the coastal promenade−−++
36.plantations along the coastal promenade−−++
37.Promenade towards St. John +−+−
38.Path of the Moon
(Put mjeseca)		+−+−
39.Paradise path (Rajski put) +−+−
40.Promenade towards Kozica Bay+−+−
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Vahtar-Jurković, K.; Sokol Jurković, R.; Jurković, J. Park Heritage of the Island of Krk between Urban Transformations and Climate Change. Land 2024, 13, 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071024

AMA Style

Vahtar-Jurković K, Sokol Jurković R, Jurković J. Park Heritage of the Island of Krk between Urban Transformations and Climate Change. Land. 2024; 13(7):1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071024

Chicago/Turabian Style

Vahtar-Jurković, Koraljka, Renata Sokol Jurković, and Jadran Jurković. 2024. "Park Heritage of the Island of Krk between Urban Transformations and Climate Change" Land 13, no. 7: 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071024

APA Style

Vahtar-Jurković, K., Sokol Jurković, R., & Jurković, J. (2024). Park Heritage of the Island of Krk between Urban Transformations and Climate Change. Land, 13(7), 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13071024

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