Drivers and Consequences of Land Degradation on Livestock Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- I.
- What are the primary biophysical and socio-economic drivers of land degradation in rangelands?
- II.
- How does land degradation affect livestock health, productivity, and mortality rates?
- III.
- What are the cascading effects of reduced livestock productivity on rural livelihoods and food security?
- IV.
- What interventions have been implemented to mitigate these effects, and how effective have they been?
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design
2.2. Pertinence and State of the Matter Studied
2.3. Literature Search
2.4. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Criteria | Included | Excluded | Justification for Criteria Application |
---|---|---|---|
Language publication | English | All other languages | To increase readability and due to the researchers’ proficiency in the English language |
Country or location of study | Sub-Saharan Africa-related papers | Non-sub-Saharan African papers | To remain within the scope of the systematic review |
Article availability | Fully available paper using University of Fort Hare’s library subscription | Full paper not accessible | Access- related issues |
Date of publication | Any article published before 30 June 2024 | - | Used available papers from selected databases to have a contemporary perspective on drivers and the consequences of land degradation on livestock productivity |
Research focus | Papers that included “drivers and consequences of land degradation in livestock” in general | Research focusing solely on agricultural crops without addressing livestock | To remain within the focused scope of the systematic review |
Type of article | Peer-reviewed research journal articles, conference papers, book chapters, review papers | Gray literature, including reports and theses, unless they provided substantial empirical data | To increase the validity of the study findings |
2.5. Data Extraction and Synthesis
2.6. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Primary Drivers of Land Degradation in Sub-Saharan Rangelands
Reference | Location | Biophysical Drivers | Socio-Economic Drivers | Methodology | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[10] | Botswana | Soil erosion, overgrazing, drought | Poverty, land tenure issues | Field survey, remote sensing | Local people identified drought as the main cause of increasing resource depletion, which impedes vegetation regeneration and induces land degradation. The situation is exacerbated by widespread poverty and inappropriate perceptions of solutions. |
[38] | Ethiopia | Bush encroachment, drought, water scarcity | Ban on traditional practices, increasing practice of crop cultivation on the rangelands | Survey | All respondents reported a dramatic decline in rangeland conditions, attributing it to past development policies based on equilibrium theories that opposed communal and traditional range management. Issues such as bush encroachment, bans on traditional burning practices, recurrent droughts, and the increasing practice of crop cultivation on rangelands were identified as serious threats to livestock production and traditional resource management. |
[11] | South Africa | Heavy grazing | - | Remote sensing, statistical analysis | Rainfall and degradation accounted for 38% and 20% of the AVHRR ZNDVI variance and 50% and 33% of the MODIS ZNDVI variance, respectively, indicating that degradation significantly influences long-term vegetation productivity. This challenges the nonequilibrium model, which predicts a negligible long-term grazing impact. |
[4] | South Africa | Land-use/land-cover change (LULCC), declining livestock, cultivation, renewable energy installations | - | Analysis of large data sets, repeat photographs | More than 95% of the Karoo has remained classified as natural and stable since 1990, with significant declines in cultivation and livestock over the last century. Vegetation productivity trends have remained unchanged over 90% of the biomes, with notable increases in nearly 10%, necessitating continuous monitoring to assess future LULCC impacts. |
[3] | Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi | Soil texture, surface slope, rainfall | Market access, human and livestock population densities | High-resolution geospatial data analysis | Conservation agriculture (CA) aims to reduce soil degradation, conserve water, and enhance crop productivity. The study identified potential recommendation domains (RDs) for CA, with 39%, 12%, and 5% of cultivated areas in Malawi, Kenya, and Ethiopia, respectively, showing high potential, highlighting significant areas for CA adoption that are influenced by biophysical and socio-economic conditions. |
[8] | Ethiopia | Rainfall variability, land degradation, low soil fertility | Market access, human and livestock population densities | Field survey, IDSS tools (SWAT, APEX) | Rainfed agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa faces constraints from rainfall variability, land degradation, and low soil fertility. Small-scale irrigation in Ethiopia’s Robit and Dangishta watersheds shows potential for dry-season vegetable production, but groundwater recharge is insufficient; mulching and soil conservation can optimize irrigation by reducing soil evaporation. |
[5] | South Africa | Vegetation change | Expansion of human settlements | Survey | The study examined local people’s perceptions of rangeland resources in three communal grasslands, finding that locals view vegetation changes primarily in terms of species richness, diversity, and abundance, unlike ecologists who link them to degradation. Abiotic, biotic, and institutional factors were identified as primary drivers, while human settlement expansion poses a threat by reducing and fragmenting grazing resources. |
[1] | Namibia | Shrub encroachment, overgrazing | High livestock densities | Dynamic vegetation modeling | High livestock densities lead to shrub encroachment and severe decreases in fodder biomass, causing up to 100% losses in land productivity. Wildlife-based land use with a 40% browser to 60% grazer ratio is beneficial for plant structural and species diversity, enhancing ecosystem sustainability and resilience. |
[7] | South Africa | Decades of overstocking with small livestock, historical ploughing for fodder, climate change | Reduced land-use options, vulnerability to environmental and economic stressors, costs of restoration | Local-scale participatory restoration trial, assessment of regional-scale restoration costs | Ecological restoration is difficult and expensive; climate change exacerbates challenges; holistic land management actions needed to sustain livelihoods |
[9] | South Africa | Assumptions of overstocking and degradation, ecological models from large-scale commercial farming | Assumptions that increasing livestock sales and commercial farming improve productivity, belief that communal tenure causes degradation and that privatization is the solution | Examination of current policy, review of ecological and economic assumptions, analysis of the effectiveness of existing models | Current policies based on large-scale commercial farming models are inappropriate for rangeland commons; effective policy should support multiple livelihoods, strengthen common property management, and use diverse ecological and economic models for different contexts |
[2] | Zimbabwe | Changes in rangeland use and productivity, cropland conversion affecting feed resources | Local knowledge of rangeland resources, role of new institutions for cropland use, changes in common property management | Participatory rural appraisals, household surveys | User communities categorize rangelands by feed resources and changes over time, view rangelands as diverse and dynamic; croplands have become dual-purpose for food security and livestock feed; new institutions govern cropland use while those for common rangelands have weakened, presenting ecological challenges but also opportunities for innovative feed resource management |
[6] | Namibia | Overgrazing and climate change | Lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts | Household surveys, focus group discussions | Respondents in all villages indicated that lack of grazing lands and feed followed by water scarcity and recurring droughts were the primary and secondary constraints of livestock production. Older respondents regarded overgrazing and climate change as the primary cause of rangeland degradation. Hence, the study concludes that communal rangelands are degraded and that degradation has resulted in gradual livestock population declining trends over the past years in communal areas due to feed shortages. |
[12] | Kenya | Soil nutrient decline, land degradation, low nutrient levels (decline of 1.7 kg P and 5.4 kg K ha−1 half year−1), low phosphorus and potassium stocks | Rising population, poverty (all households below the poverty line of 1 USD/day), low farm economic returns, low livestock productivity, and low yields of staple food crops | Soil nutrient monitoring, household surveys | Soil nutrient decline rates are low compared with macro-scale data, but low farm productivity and economic returns threaten sustainability; intercropping systems (maize–beans) improve the nutrient balance and household incomes; the study highlights the need to encourage intercropping and to consider localized sustainability strategies |
3.2. Impact of Land Degradation on Livestock Health, Productivity, and Mortality
References | Study Areas | Health Impacts | Productivity Impacts | Mortality Rates | Methodology | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[14] | South Africa | Increased disease incidence | Reduced milk and meat yield | Higher calf mortality | Field experiments, veterinary records | Increased land degradation correlates with higher disease incidence and reduced productivity, leading to higher mortality. |
[17] | Namibia | Poor nutritional status | Decreased weight gain | Increased adult livestock deaths | Longitudinal study, surveys | Poor forage quality from degraded lands leads to poor nutrition, weight loss, and increased mortality. |
[39] | Botswana | Higher parasite loads | Lower reproductive rates | Elevated young livestock mortality | Cross-sectional study, lab analysis | Land degradation results in higher parasite burdens and lower reproductive success, increasing young livestock deaths. |
[23] | Kenya | Increased respiratory and digestive issues | Decline in wool and milk production | Higher lamb mortality | Observational study, interviews | Dust and poor vegetation from degraded lands contribute to respiratory and digestive problems, reducing wool and milk production, and increasing lamb mortality. |
[18] | Ethiopia | Malnutrition and weakened immunity | Lower overall herd productivity | Spike in drought-related deaths | Survey, field observation | Degradation-related malnutrition weakens immunity, reducing herd productivity and increasing mortality during drought periods. |
[41] | Tanzania | Reduced fertility rates | Lowered birth rates | Increased perinatal mortality | Case study, veterinary reports | Nutrient-deficient forage due to land degradation leads to reduced fertility and higher perinatal mortality, directly impacting herd sustainability. |
[42] | Zambia | Stress-related health conditions | Decreased milk yield | Higher incidence of miscarriages | Mixed-methods approach | Environmental stress from land degradation contributes to stress-related conditions, reducing milk yield and increasing miscarriage rates among pregnant livestock. |
[13] | Malawi | Increased susceptibility to zoonotic diseases | Decline in meat quality | Rising deaths during dry season | Field surveys, health monitoring | Land degradation exacerbates exposure to zoonotic diseases, affecting meat quality and increasing death rates during dry seasons due to limited resources. |
[21] | Zimbabwe | Compromised immune response | Lower weaning weights | Increased mortality during disease outbreaks | Longitudinal health monitoring | Land degradation results in compromised immune responses, leading to lower weaning weights and increased mortality during disease outbreaks, particularly in young livestock. |
3.3. Socio-Economic Consequences of Reduced Livestock Productivity
References | Study Areas | Impact on Livelihoods | Impact on Food Security | Methodology | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[15] | Kenya | Reduced income from livestock sales | Increased food insecurity | Household surveys, economic analysis | Lower livestock productivity directly reduces household income and food security. |
[2] | Zimbabwe | Increased poverty | Reliance on food aid | Mixed methods, focus groups | Decreased livestock productivity exacerbates poverty, leading to a higher dependence on food aid. |
[18] | Ethiopia | Migration to urban areas | Nutritional deficiencies | Longitudinal survey, interviews | Reduced livestock yields lead to rural–urban migration and higher rates of nutritional deficiencies. |
[5] | South Africa | Loss of traditional livelihoods | Decline in dietary diversity | Case studies, participatory rural appraisal | Land degradation and reduced livestock productivity force communities to abandon traditional pastoral livelihoods, leading to a decline in dietary diversity and food security. |
[41] | Tanzania | Increased vulnerability to economic shocks | Lower access to animal-source foods | Cross-sectional survey, economic modeling | Declining livestock productivity heightens household vulnerability to economic shocks, reducing access to nutritious animal-source foods and worsening food insecurity. |
[42] | Zambia | Diversification into non-agricultural work | Reduced protein intake | Household surveys, livelihood assessments | As livestock productivity decreases, households diversify into non-agricultural work, leading to reduced protein intake due to the lower availability of animal products. |
3.4. Effectiveness of Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies
References | Study Areas | Intervention | Effectiveness | Methodology | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[42] | Zambia | Rotational grazing | High | Controlled experiment, field observations | Rotational grazing significantly improves rangeland health and livestock productivity. |
[45] | Tanzania | Agroforestry | Moderate | Case studies, participatory research | Agroforestry practices help reduce soil erosion and improve forage quality with moderate success. |
[15] | Kenya | Soil conservation techniques | High | Field trials, farmer surveys | Soil conservation techniques, including terracing and mulching, show high effectiveness in reducing degradation and improving livestock yields. |
[13] | Malawi | Integrated livestock–crop systems | Moderate | Mixed methods, longitudinal study | Integrated livestock–crop systems enhance soil fertility and provide supplementary feed, but require careful management to be sustainable. |
[2] | Zimbabwe | Controlled burning | Low to moderate | Experimental plots, historical data | Controlled burning helps manage bush encroachment and improve grazing conditions, but its effectiveness varies based on the fire frequency and intensity. |
[47] | Botswana | Water harvesting techniques | High | Case studies, community workshops | Water harvesting techniques, such as small dams and ponds, significantly improve water availability for livestock during dry seasons, boosting productivity. |
[18] | Ethiopia | Community-based rangeland management | High | Participatory rural appraisal, interviews | Community-based rangeland management fosters collective action in rangeland restoration, leading to improved forage availability and livestock health. |
[43] | Uganda | Livestock restocking programs | Moderate | Household surveys, program evaluation | Livestock restocking programs help rebuild herds after droughts or disease outbreaks, with moderate success depending on follow-up support and training. |
[40] | Kenya | Drought-resistant forage species | High | Field trials, laboratory analysis | Introduction of drought-resistant forage species enhances rangeland resilience, ensuring consistent livestock feed during drought periods, leading to sustained productivity. |
[48] | Tanzania | Pasture improvement programs | Moderate to high | Experimental designs, participatory approaches | Pasture improvement programs, including reseeding and fertilization, show moderate to high effectiveness in increasing biomass and supporting livestock growth. |
[49] | Eswatini | Livestock health monitoring | High | Veterinary surveys, health records | Regular livestock health monitoring and vaccination programs significantly reduce disease incidence and improve overall herd productivity and survival rates. |
3.5. Key Themes and Insights from the Word Cloud on Land Degradation, Rangelands, and Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa
3.6. Insights from the Co-Occurrence Network Diagram on Land Degradation, Rangelands, and Livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa
4. Recommendations for Policy Makers in Charge of These Problems and Future Research Directions
5. Potential Limitations
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Slayi, M.; Zhou, L.; Dzvene, A.R.; Mpanyaro, Z. Drivers and Consequences of Land Degradation on Livestock Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review. Land 2024, 13, 1402. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091402
Slayi M, Zhou L, Dzvene AR, Mpanyaro Z. Drivers and Consequences of Land Degradation on Livestock Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review. Land. 2024; 13(9):1402. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091402
Chicago/Turabian StyleSlayi, Mhlangabezi, Leocadia Zhou, Admire Rukudzo Dzvene, and Zolisanani Mpanyaro. 2024. "Drivers and Consequences of Land Degradation on Livestock Productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Literature Review" Land 13, no. 9: 1402. https://doi.org/10.3390/land13091402